Cited by 332Dementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchAlzheimer's disease research and treatmentsMenopause: Health Impacts and Treatments

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Is the Risk of Developing Alzheimer's Disease Greater for Women than for Men?

Hebert, Liesi E., Scherr, Paul A., McCann, Judith J., Beckett, Laurel A., Evans, Denis A.·2001·American Journal of Epidemiology

DOI 10.1093/aje/153.2.132

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Abstract

A large proportion of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are women; however, it is not clear whether this is due to higher risk of disease or solely to the larger number of women alive at ages when AD is common. Beginning in 1982, two stratified random samples of people aged ≥65 years in East Boston, Massachusetts underwent detailed, structured clinical evaluation for prevalent (467 people) and incident (642 people from a cohort previously ascertained to be disease-free) probable AD. The prevalence sample was followed for mortality for up to 11 years (through December 1992). The age-specific incidence of AD did not differ significantly by sex (for men vs. women, odds ratio = 0.92; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.51, 1.67). Controlled for age, prevalence also did not differ significantly by sex (for men vs. women, odds ratio = 1.29; 95% CI: 0.67, 2.48). The increase in risk of mortality due to AD did not vary by sex. The odds ratio for women with AD compared with women without AD was 2.07 (95% CI: 1.21, 3.56). For men, the odds ratio was 2.22 (95% CI: 1.02, 4.81). These findings suggest that the excess number of women with AD is due to the longer life expectancy of women rather than sex-specific risk factors for the disease.

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Method
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“Women have higher rates of AD [18–22], though some studies have claimed that the difference can be explained more by age than gender, as females, on average, live longer than males [24, 25].”
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“The disease affects more women than men, probably because women have a higher life expectancy [13, 14 ].”
Background
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ResultInfluential
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“Indi498 viduals with a family history of AD may be more 499 likely to participate [49], and importantly, these stud500 ies may oversample healthier individuals due to the 501 difficulty for sick participants to participate in fol502 low up data collection [50].”
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“Sex differences in AD have been widely studied and attributed to several factors, including genetic, hormonal and social factors, or the longer life expectancy of women [25,26].”
Background
No Geographic Correlation between Lyme Disease and Death Due to 4 Neurodegenerative Disorders, United States, 2001–2010
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“Some recent studies, especially those performed in America, have suggested that males and females have a similar prevalence of AD after controlling for age (Hebert et al., 2001), and the incidence did not differ significantly between genders up to an advanced age (Edland et al.”
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Hazzouri, A. Z. A., Vittinghoff, E., Hoang, T. D. M., Golden, S. H., Fitzpatrick, A. L., Zhang, A., Grasset, L., & Yaffe, K. S. (2021) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12367 · Cited by 36
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Background
The Role of Education in the Relationship Between Age of Migration to the United States and Risk of Cognitive Impairment Among Older Mexican Americans
Downer, B. G., García, M. A., Saenz, J. L., Markides, K. S., & Wong, R. (2017) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027517701447 · Cited by 37
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Genetic Variation of CYP19 (Aromatase) Gene Influences Age at Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease in Women
Corbo, R. M., Gambina, G., Ulizzi, L., Moretto, G., & Scacchi, R. (2009) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000221832 · Cited by 35
The influence of sex on limbic volume and perfusion in AD
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“Whether this is a true phenomenon [23] or whether is can be attributed to the longer life span of women is still controversial [22].”
Background
Subjective cognitive decline is a better marker for future cognitive decline in females than in males
Oliver, M. D., Morrison, C., Kamal, F., Graham, J., & Dadar, M. (2022) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-022-01138-w · Cited by 43
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Background
Gender Differences in Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Mild to Moderate Alzheimer's Disease Patients Undergoing Switch of Cholinesterase Inhibitors: A Post Hoc Analysis of the EVOLUTION Study
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“Women have a higher risk of developing AD, although it is not clear if this is due to their longer life span (Andersen et al., 1999; Hebert et al., 2001).”
Background
Identifying the landscape of Alzheimer’s disease research with network and content analysis
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“In recent years, it was found that older age is considered to be a main risk factor (Hebert et al. 2001; Seshadri et al. 1997) while gender is not (Bachman et al.”
Receptor-dependent (RD) 3D-QSAR approach of a series of benzylpiperidine inhibitors of human acetylcholinesterase (HuAChE)
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“Otherwise, females with other neurodegenerative diseases had a higher survival rate [33].”
Background
An epidemiological study of dementia under the aegis of mental health program, Maharashtra, Pune chapter
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Place of death trends among patients with dementia in Japan: a population-based observational study
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Cognitive impairment and hypertension in older adults living in extreme poverty: a cross-sectional study in Peru
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“obtained a similar result to ours and concluded that the higher prevalence of cognitive impairment in women was due to their longer life expectancy, which overestimated this value when compared to elderly males [34].”
Result
Hormone Therapy in Postmenopausal Women
Driscoll, I. F., Rapp, S. R., Johnson, K., & Espeland, M. A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190645908.003.0019 · Cited by 24
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“Some argue this is because women live longer than men [28, 29].”
Background
Testing the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire in an Alzheimer’s Disease Population
Garba, A. E., Grossberg, G. T., Enard, K. R., Jano, F. J., Roberts, E. N., Marx, C., & Buchanan, P. M. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease Reports · doi:10.3233/adr-200244 · Cited by 23
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“Many studies in North and South America cohorts have found no signiﬁcant sex difference in the incidence of AD [30, 31].”
Cognitively normal individuals with AD parents may be at risk for developing aging-related cortical thinning patterns characteristic of AD
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“While many researchers propose that the reason is because women live longer than men (Hebert et al., 2001; Kawas et al., 2000) and that aging-related decreases in levels of estrogen in women which has protective effects against ADmay increase the risk of AD (Bendlin et al.”
Background
Global burden of young-onset dementia, from 1990 to 2021: an age-period-cohort analysis from the global burden of disease study 2021
He, Q., Wang, W., Zhang, Y., Yang, X., Tao, C., Ma, L., You, C., Ma, J., & Jiang, Y. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03275-w · Cited by 20
“…1.1 per 100 000 population in the group aged 30 – 34 years to 77.4 per 100 000 population in the group aged 60 – 64 years, while our results showed a higher level, from 17.2 per 100 000 population in the group aged 40 – 44 years to 1081.5 per 100 000 population in the group aged 60 – 64 years [3].”
Influential
Sex-related differences in the relationship between β-amyloid and cognitive trajectories in older adults.
Lindbergh, C. A., Hillblom Aging Network, Casaletto, K. B., Staffaroni, A. M., Joie, R. L., Iaccarino, L., Edwards, L., Tsoy, E., Elahi, F. M., Walters, S. M., et al. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000696 · Cited by 21
“Given that females tend to live longer than males on average and age is the single greatest risk factor for AD, it has even been questioned whether sexual dimorphism in AD is an artifact of differences in life expectancies (Hebert et al., 2001, 2013).”
Background
Exploring the role of sex differences in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome
Andrews, E. J., Martini, A. C., & Head, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.954999 · Cited by 21
“, 2018), and tend to live longer with AD than their male counterparts (Tang et al., 1996; Hebert et al., 2001).”
Background
Sex Differences in Risk for Alzheimer’s Disease Related to Neurotrophin Gene Polymorphisms: The Cache County Memory Study
Matyi, J., Tschanz, J. T., Rattinger, G. B., Sanders, C., Vernon, E. K., Corcoran, C., Kauwe, J. S. K., & Buhusi, M. C. (2017) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glx092 · Cited by 25
“Although many studies have suggested that the sex discrepancy in rates of AD reflects the higher life expectancy of women (2), other research implicates sex differences in factors that contribute to the development of AD (3).”
Psychosocial interventions in Alzheimer's disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment: evidence for gender bias in clinical trials
Baron, S., Ulstein, I. D., & Werheid, K. (2014) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2014.938601 · Cited by 21
Response of ERβ and aromatase expression in the monkey hippocampal formation to ovariectomy and menopause
Higaki, S., Takumi, K., Itoh, M., Watanabe, G., Taya, K., Shimizu, K., Hayashi, M., & Oishi, T. (2011) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2011.10.007 · Cited by 20
“…and cognitive functions has been clinically documented indicating that menopausal women are at a higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and depression (Launer et al., 1999; Weissman et al., 1993) although there remains some controversy over the sex difference (Hebert et al., 2001).”
The role of reproductive hormones in maintaining cognition
Greene, R. A., & Dixon, W. (2002) · Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0889-8545(02)00019-0 · Cited by 20
“In fact, if a woman lives to age 90, her risk is approximated to be as high as 50% [1].”
Background
Sex differences and the role of estrogens in the immunological underpinnings of Alzheimer's disease
Price, B. R., Walker, K. A., Eissman, J. M., Suryadevara, V., Sime, L. N., Hohman, T. J., & Gordon, M. N. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1002/trc2.70139 · Cited by 25
Factores de riesgo de la enfermedad de Alzheimer
Quintana, J. L. B., Allam, M. F., del Castillo, A. S., & Navajas, R. F. (2005) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.4010.2004360 · Cited by 20
When Mars Versus Venus is Not a ClichÃ©: Gender Differences in the Neurobiology of Alzheimerâ€™s Disease
Lin, K. A., & Doraiswamy, P. M. (2015) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2014.00288 · Cited by 42
“The literature has remained somewhat conflicting as to whether there is a higher age-adjusted incidence of AD in women with some studies finding no difference (3, 4) and others suggesting that women have a higher incidence (5–8).”
Background
Epidemiological Investigation of Type 2 Diabetes and Alzheimer’s Disease in a Pakistani Population
Noreen, Z., DeJesus, J., Bhatti, A., Loffredo, C. A., John, P. C. L., Khan, J. S., Nunlee‐Bland, G., & Ghosh, S. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15081582 · Cited by 19
“Research has shown higher prevalence of AD in women due to the longer life expectancy of females, on average [11].”
Background
Binding between Prion Protein and Aβ Oligomers Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
Kong, C., Xie, H., Gao, Z., Shao, M., Li, H., Shi, R., Cai, L., Gao, S., Sun, T., & Li, C. (2019) · Virologica Sinica · doi:10.1007/s12250-019-00124-1 · Cited by 18
Cognitive decline among European retirees: impact of early retirement, nation-related and personal characteristics
Carmel, S., & Tur‐Sinai, A. (2021) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x21000064 · Cited by 18
“For instance, although our findings refer only to MD, no significant gender difference has been found in the prevalence or incidence of Alzheimer’s disease, which is the most prevalent dementia disease in old age (Hebert et al., 2001).”
Background
Signalling Pathways Involved in Microglial Activation in Alzheimer’s Disease and Potential Neuroprotective Role of Phytoconstituents
Ali, M. U., Anwar, L., Ali, M. H., Iqubal, M. K., Iqubal, A., Baboota, S., & Ali, J. (2022) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527322666221223091529 · Cited by 17
Computer-aided diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease by MRI analysis and evolutionary computing
de Souza, R. G., Silva, G. D. S. L. E., dos Santos, W. P., de Lima, M. E., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2021) · Research on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s42600-021-00160-5 · Cited by 15
Sex-specific transcriptional rewiring in the brain of Alzheimer’s disease patients
Santiago, J. A., Quinn, J. P., & Potashkin, J. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.1009368 · Cited by 16
“Several investigations have suggested that the higher incidence of AD among women is due to the longer life expectancy rather than sex-specific factors (Hebert et al., 2001).”
Background
Sex Differences in Conversion Risk from Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer’s Disease: An Explainable Machine Learning Study with Random Survival Forests and SHAP
Sarica, A., Pelagi, A., Aracri, F., Arcuri, F., Quattrone, A., Quattrone, A., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14030201 · Cited by 17
“…the other hand, several works showed that no sex differences in the progression to AD exist and that the risk is equal between males and females [6,14], contradicting the hypothesis of sexual dimorphism in dementia [15], and stating that those differences are due only to the longer life…”
Background
Impact of gender on platelet membrane functions of Alzheimer's disease patients
Vignini, A., Giusti, L., Raffaelli, F., Giulietti, A., Salvolini, E., Luzzi, S., Provinciali, L., Mazzanti, L., & Nanetti, L. (2012) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2012.11.015 · Cited by 16
Dementia after Three Months and One Year from Stroke: New Onset or Previous Cognitive Impairment?
Caratozzolo, S., Mombelli, G., Riva, M., Zanetti, M., Gottardi, F., Padovani, A., & Rozzini, L. (2016) · Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.07.027 · Cited by 19
The Moderating Effect of Community Environment on the Association Between Social Support and Chinese Older Adults' Health: An Empirical Analysis Study
Li, D., Li, X., & Zeng, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.855310 · Cited by 15
Sex and gender differences in dementia
Salwierz, P., Davenport, C., Sumra, V., Iulita, M. F., Ferretti, M. T., & Tartaglia, M. C. (2022) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2022.07.002 · Cited by 16
Insulin resistance, cognition and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: Evidence that CSF Aβ42 moderates the association between insulin resistance and increased CSF tau levels
Woodfield, A., Porter, T., Gilani, I., Noordin, S., Li, Q., Collins, S. J., Martins, R. N., Maruff, P. T., Masters, C. L., Rowe, C. C., et al. (2022) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.03.004 · Cited by 18
Dementia and Medicare at Life's End
Lamb, V. L., Sloan, F. A., & Nathan, A. S. (2007) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00787.x · Cited by 16
“2005), primarily due to longer life expectancy (Hebert et al. 2001).”
Background
Study on Cognitive Reserve in Korea Using Korean Version of Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire
Choi, C.-H., Park, S., Park, H.-J., Cho, Y., Sohn, B. K., & Lee, J. (2016) · 신경정신의학 · doi:10.4306/jknpa.2016.55.3.256 · Cited by 15
AAV delivery of shRNA against IRS1 in GABAergic neurons in rat hippocampus impairs spatial memory in females and male rats
Sánchez‐Sarasúa, S., Ribes‐Navarro, A., Beltrán-Bretones, M. T., & Sánchez‐Pérez, A. M. (2020) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-020-02155-x · Cited by 15
Prevention of Alzheimer’s disease, Cerebrovascular Disease and Dementia in Women: the Case for Menopause Hormone Therapy
Davey, D. A. (2017) · Neurodegenerative Disease Management · doi:10.2217/nmt-2016-0044 · Cited by 14
Sex difference in evolution of cognitive decline: studies on mouse model and the Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network cohort
Kommaddi, R. P., Verma, A., Terrera, G. M., Tiwari, V., Chithanathan, K., Diwakar, L., Gowaikar, R., Karunakaran, S., Malo, P. K., Graff‐Radford, N. R., et al. (2023) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-023-02411-8 · Cited by 18
“Some studies revealed a stronger association between AD pathology and clinical AD in women [72, 74], whereas others did not [71, 75, 76].”
Result
Altered immune response is associated with sex difference in vulnerability to Alzheimer's disease in human prefrontal cortex
Wen, H., He, Y., Tang, Y., Zhu, L., Tao, Q., Jin, B., Luo, T., Peng, Y., Wei, Y., Lei, J., et al. (2024) · Brain Pathology · doi:10.1111/bpa.13318 · Cited by 13
“Although the impact of sex on disease prevalence remains a debate, studies suggested that the higher incidence in females may be linked to their longer life expectancy [4], placing them at greater risk as they age [5, 6].”
Risk factors and hospitalization costs of Dementia patients: Examining race and gender variations
Husaini, B. A., Gudlavalleti, A., Cain, V. A., Levine, R. S., & Moonis, M. (2015) · Indian Journal of Community Medicine · doi:10.4103/0970-0218.164396 · Cited by 15
“(6) This may be due to the fact that women tend to live longer.(7,8) However, some studies suggest that socio-cultural and hormonal differences may also have a role to play.”
Background
Modeling the Dementia Epidemic
Treves, T. A., & Korczyn, A. D. (2011) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2011.00242.x · Cited by 13
“In addition, women live longer [67] even after development of dementia [68], which adds to the higher proportion of women among patients with dementia.”
Background
An Experimental Pilot Study of Global Postural Reeducation Concerning the Cognitive Approach of Patients With Alzheimer’s Disease
Todri, J., Lena, O., & Gil, J. L. M. (2019) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317519867824 · Cited by 13
Cognition and survival in a biracial urban population of old people
Wilson, R. S., Barnes, L. L., de Leon, C. F. M., & Evans, D. A. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.10.002 · Cited by 13
Self-citation
Decreasing Incidence and Prevalence of Dementia Among Octogenarians: A Population-Based Study on 3 Cohorts Born 30 Years Apart
Wetterberg, H., Najar, J., Sterner, T. R., Rydén, L., Falk, H., Sacuiu, S. F., Kern, S., Zettergren, A., & Skoog, I. G. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glad071 · Cited by 16
“However, a longer life expectancy among women (51), a survival effect among men, or more prolonged exposure to estrogens (52) may play a role.”
Unraveling sex differences in Alzheimer's disease and related endophenotypes with brain proteomes
Mei, Z., Liu, J., Bennett, D. A., Seyfried, N., Wingo, A. P., & Wingo, T. S. (2025) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.70206 · Cited by 11
Biological and Clinical Implications of Sex-Specific Differences in Alzheimer’s Disease
Santiago, J. A., & Potashkin, J. A. (2023) · Handbook of experimental pharmacology · doi:10.1007/164_2023_672 · Cited by 11
Dissecting Sex‐Related Cognition between Alzheimer’s Disease and Diabetes: From Molecular Mechanisms to Potential Therapeutic Strategies
Ashraf, G. M., Ebada, M. A., Suhail, M., Ali, A., Uddin, M. S., Bilgrami, A. L., Perveen, A., Husain, A., Tarique, M., Hafeez, A., et al. (2021) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2021/4572471 · Cited by 11
Investigation of sex differences in mutation carriers of the Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network
Wagemann, O., Li, Y., Hassenstab, J. J., Aschenbrenner, A. J., McKay, N. S., Gordon, B. A., Benzinger, T. L. S., Xiong, C., Cruchaga, C., Renton, A. E., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13460 · Cited by 9
Sex-specific patterns of age-related cerebral atrophy in a nonhuman primate Microcebus murinus
Fritz, R. G., Zimmermann, E., Picq, J., Lautier, C., Meier, M., Kästner, S., & Schmidtke, D. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.02.027 · Cited by 9
Prevención de la enfermedad de Alzheimer: un camino a seguir
Bermejo‐Pareja, F., Velasco, S. L., & Villarejo‐Galende, A. (2016) · Revista Clínica Española · doi:10.1016/j.rce.2016.05.010 · Cited by 15

Authors: Hebert, L. E., Scherr, P. A., McCann, J. J., Beckett, L. A., & Evans, D. A.
Affiliations: Rush University Medical Center (US)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
Rush University (US)
ORCID: Beckett, Laurel A.
Evans, Denis A.
Venue: American Journal of Epidemiology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2001-01-15
Volume: 153
Issue: 2
Pages: 132-136
ISSN: 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
1476-6256
DOI: 10.1093/aje/153.2.132
OpenAlex: W2105835982
Cited by: 331
References: 51
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 15
FWCI: 6.01
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01ag005362-02, 5r29ag011862-05)
National Institute on Aging (AG 10161, P30AG010161, AG 05362, AG11862)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Menopause: Health Impacts and Treatments
Keywords: Alzheimer's disease, sex differences, women, age-specific incidence, prevalence, mortality, life expectancy, older adults, sex-specific risk factors
MeSH terms: Aged, Alzheimer Disease, Boston, Female, Humans, Longevity, Male, Population Surveillance, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Incidence, Prevalence, Logistic Models, Odds Ratio, Survival Analysis, Sex Distribution

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Is the Risk of Developing Alzheimer's Disease Greater for Women than for Men?

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