The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Is the Risk of Developing Alzheimer's Disease Greater for Women than for Men?
Abstract
A large proportion of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are women; however, it is not clear whether this is due to higher risk of disease or solely to the larger number of women alive at ages when AD is common. Beginning in 1982, two stratified random samples of people aged ≥65 years in East Boston, Massachusetts underwent detailed, structured clinical evaluation for prevalent (467 people) and incident (642 people from a cohort previously ascertained to be disease-free) probable AD. The prevalence sample was followed for mortality for up to 11 years (through December 1992). The age-specific incidence of AD did not differ significantly by sex (for men vs. women, odds ratio = 0.92; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.51, 1.67). Controlled for age, prevalence also did not differ significantly by sex (for men vs. women, odds ratio = 1.29; 95% CI: 0.67, 2.48). The increase in risk of mortality due to AD did not vary by sex. The odds ratio for women with AD compared with women without AD was 2.07 (95% CI: 1.21, 3.56). For men, the odds ratio was 2.22 (95% CI: 1.02, 4.81). These findings suggest that the excess number of women with AD is due to the longer life expectancy of women rather than sex-specific risk factors for the disease.
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In the citing paper
“However, it is not clear that the risk of developing Alzheimer's or other dementias differs between men and women of the same age.”
From 2024 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2024) · cites this paper as [289]
In the citing paper
“Most studies of incidence in the United States have found no meaningful difference between men and women in the proportion who develop Alzheimer's or other dementias at any given age,”
From 2024 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2024) · cites this paper as [289]
In the citing paper
“Women live longer than men on average, and older age is the greatest risk factor for Alzheimer's.”
From 2024 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2024) · cites this paper as [289]
In the citing paper
“It is known that women have a greater prevalence of Alzheimer disease (AD) than men, at least partly because women live longer.1,2,3”
From Sex differences in cognitive decline among US adults (2021) · cites this paper as [3]
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“pared with men, though other studies have found no difference.(12,13) Elderly women, however, have higher amounts of AD pathology than elderly men,(14) and women with AD perform more poorly than men on cognitive assessment.”
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BackgroundResultA second X chromosome contributes to resilience in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease
Davis, E. J., Broestl, L., Abdulai-Saiku, S., Worden, K., Bonham, L. W., Miñones-Moyano, E., Moreno, A. J., Wang, D., Chang, K., Williams, G., et al. (2020) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaz5677 · Cited by 176
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BackgroundPsychiatric Disorders and Major Spine Surgery
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“If men begin to show the same survival as women, then that pattern of dementia may change [21].”
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Sex dimorphism profile of Alzheimer’s disease-type pathologies in an APP/PS1 mouse model
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“Sex difference in the risk of AD has been investigated extensively, with women having a higher prevalence (Hebert et al. 2001; Bachman et al. 1992) and incidence (Ruitenberg et al.”
Blood-brain barrier integrity in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease
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“In a study of Boston, United States, residents older than 65 years, 24% of the 205 men and 32% of the 262 women had AD (6).”
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Alzheimer's disease and automatic speech analysis: A review
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Sex and age interact to determine clinicopathologic differences in Alzheimer’s disease
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Imtiaz, B., Tuppurainen, M. T., Rikkonen, T., Kivipelto, M., Soininen, H. S., Kröger, H., & Tolppanen, A. (2017) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000003696 · Cited by 110
Cumulative Exposure to Lead in Relation to Cognitive Function in Older Women
Weuve, J., Korrick, S., Weisskopf, M. G., RYAN, L. M., Schwartz, J. D., Nie, H., Grodstein, F., & Hu, H. (2008) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.11846 · Cited by 110
“2001) and because women have a higher lifetime risk than men of developing dementia (Andersen et al. 1999; Hebert et al. 2001; Ott et al. 1998; Seshadri et al. 1997).”
Increased fragmentation of sleep–wake cycles in the 5XFAD mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease
Sethi, M., Joshi, S., Webb, R. L., Beckett, T. L., Donohue, K. D., Murphy, M. P., O’Hara, B. F., & Duncan, M. J. (2015) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.01.035 · Cited by 109
“More women are known to have AD compared to men, possibly because of longer life expectancy in women (Hebert et al., 2001) or due to hormonal alterations late in life (Morinaga et al.”
BackgroundRonchi, D. D., Berardi, D., Menchetti, M., Ferrari, G., Serretti, A., Dalmonte, E., & Fratiglioni, L. (2004) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000082660 · Cited by 105
Kumar, N., Kumar, V., Anand, P., Kumar, V., Dwivedi, A. R., & Kumar, V. (2022) · Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2022.116742 · Cited by 98
Impact of Dementia on Hospitalization
Guijarro, R., Román, C. M. S., Gómez‐Huelgas, R., Villalobos, A., Martín, M. I., Guil, M., Martínez‐González, M. Á., & Toledo, J. B. (2010) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000311032 · Cited by 97
Sex differences in the blood–brain barrier and neurodegenerative diseases
Weber, C. M., & Clyne, A. M. (2021) · APL Bioengineering · doi:10.1063/5.0035610 · Cited by 95
Dubal, D. B. (2020) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00018-7 · Cited by 92
Gamache, J., Yun, Y., & Chiba-Falek, O. (2020) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.045211 · Cited by 84
“LOAD Women are at higher risk of developing LOAD (Hebert et al., 2001), and the prevalence (Box 1) of LOAD is higher in females than in males (Prince et al.”
BackgroundLong‐Term Function in an Older Cohort—The Cardiovascular Health Study All Stars Study
Newman, A. B., Arnold, A. M., Sachs, M. C., Ives, D. G., Cushman, M., Strotmeyer, E. S., Ding, J., Kritchevsky, S. B., Chaves, P. H. M., Fried, L. P., et al. (2009) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02152.x · Cited by 80
“This is consistent with studies of dementia incidence, which show that there is less difference according to sex than previously thought.(27) Patterns of functional decline differed between groups defined at the CHS All Stars examination.”
ResultA brief olfactory test for Alzheimer's disease
Stamps, J. J., Bartoshuk, L. M., & Heilman, K. M. (2013) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2013.06.033 · Cited by 79
“AD is more commonly diagnosed in women than men, possibly related to women having longer life expectancy [31].”
BackgroundStress-Induced Cytokines and Neuronal Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease
Ricci, S., Fuso, A., Ippoliti, F., & Businaro, R. (2012) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2011-110821 · Cited by 76
“According to a recent 9 cases per 1,000 persons between 75 and 79 years old, and 40.2 cases per 1,000 persons between 85 and age group increases with a higher incidence women [5, 6].”
InfluentialDonix, M., Burggren, A. C., Scharf, M., Marschner, K., Suthana, N., Siddarth, P., Krupa, A. K., Jones, M., Martin‐Harris, L., Ercoli, L. M., et al. (2013) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.09.006 · Cited by 73
“finding (Hebert et al., 2001).”
BackgroundRisk Factors Affecting Cognitive Impairment of the Elderly Aged 65 and Over: A Cross-Sectional Study
Han, F., Luo, C., Lv, D., Long, T., & Qu, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.903794 · Cited by 91
Burke, S. L., Hu, T., Fava, N. M., Li, T., Rodriguez, M. J., Schuldiner, K. L., Burgess, A., & Laird, A. R. (2018) · Journal of Women & Aging · doi:10.1080/08952841.2018.1419476 · Cited by 77
“Research regarding sex differences in dementia development typically points to the longer life expectancy generally experienced by women as the rationale for a higher occurrence in women (Hebert et al., 2001; Snyder et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBreath-based non-invasive diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: a pilot study
Tiele, A., Wicaksono, A. N., Daulton, E., Ifeachor, E., Eyre, V., Clarke, S., Timings, L., Pearson, S., Covington, J. A., & Li, X. (2019) · Journal of Breath Research · doi:10.1088/1752-7163/ab6016 · Cited by 73
Prevalence of Cognitive Impairment Without Dementia and Dementia in Tremembé, Brazil
César‐Freitas, K. G., Brucki, S. M. D., Takada, L. T., Nascimento, L. F. C., Gomes, C. M. S., Almeida, M. C. S., de Oliveira, M. O., Porto, F. H. G., Senaha, M. L. H., Bahia, V. S., et al. (2015) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000122 · Cited by 75
Imfeld, P., Brauchli Pernus, Y. B., Jick, S. S., & Meier, C. R. (2013) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-121819 · Cited by 72
“However, not all studies reported such a difference between men and women [24–26], and it has been proposed that the higher number of women with AD may be due to the longer life-expectancy of women rather than genderspecific characteristics of the disease [27].”
Physical exercise neuroprotects ovariectomized 3xTg-AD mice through BDNF mechanisms
García-Mesa, Y., Pareja-Galeano, H., Bonet-Costa, V., Revilla, S., Gómez-Cabrera, M. C., Gambini, J., Giménez-Llort, L., Cristòfol, R., Viña, J., & Sanfeliu, C. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.03.021 · Cited by 68
“Despite the suggested higher risk of AD at menopause, several cohort studies have demonstrated no gender effect in the risk of developing AD nor in the incidence rates (Rocca et al., 1998; Hebert et al., 2001; Barnes et al., 2003).”
BackgroundApolipoprotein E isoform mediated regulation of nitric oxide release
Brown, C. M., Wright, E., Colton, C. A., Sullivan, P. M., Laskowitz, D. T., & Vitek, M. P. (2002) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0891-5849(02)00803-1 · Cited by 84
d’Abramo, C., D'adamio, L., & Giliberto, L. (2020) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm10030116 · Cited by 71
Alzheimer’s Disease: A Clinical Practice-Oriented Review
Alves, L., Correia, A. S., Miguel, R., Alegria, P., & Bugalho, P. (2012) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2012.00063 · Cited by 74
The RELN Locus in Alzheimer's Disease
Seripa, D., Matera, M. G., Franceschi, M., Daniele, A., Bizzarro, A., Rinaldi, M., Panza, F., Fazio, V. M., Gravina, C., D’Onofrio, G., et al. (2008) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2008-14308 · Cited by 69
“It is well documented that the risk for AD is higher in woman than in men [2,13].”
BackgroundUdeh-Momoh, C., & Watermeyer, T. (2021) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2021.101459 · Cited by 67
Incidence of Dementia in a Rural Community in Spain: The Girona Cohort Study
Pousa, S. L., Franch, J. V., Reglà, J. L., Garre‐Olmo, J., & Román, G. C. (2004) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000078502 · Cited by 67
The recognition of facial expressions of emotion in Alzheimer’s disease: a review of findings
McLellan, T., Johnston, L. C., Dalrymple‐Alford, J. C., & Porter, R. (2008) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1111/j.1601-5215.2008.00315.x · Cited by 70
Dissecting the Contribution of Vascular Alterations and Aging to Alzheimer’s Disease
Janota, C. S., Lemere, C. A., & Brito, M. A. (2015) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-015-9319-7 · Cited by 70
“It is estimated that AD affects 26 million individuals worldwide; however, that number is projected to rise to nearly 34 million by 2025 and to triple by 2050 [2, 3].”
BackgroundMielke, M. M. (2019) · The Journal of Applied Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.1373/jalm.2019.030023 · Cited by 67
Sex and Gender Differences in Alzheimer’s Disease: Genetic, Hormonal, and Inflammation Impacts
Kolahchi, Z., Henkel, N., Eladawi, M. A., Villarreal, E. C., Kandimalla, P., Lundh, A., McCullumsmith, R. E., & Cuevas, E. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25158485 · Cited by 66
“Reporting a higher prevalence of AD in women may result from survival bias rather than sex-specific variables that increase the disease risk [13].”
BackgroundImtiaz, B., Taipale, H. T., Tanskanen, A. J., Tiihonen, M., Kivipelto, M., Heikkinen, A. M., Tiihonen, J., Soininen, H. S., Hartikainen, S. A., & Tolppanen, A. (2017) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.01.002 · Cited by 62
Sex differences in mixed neuropathologies in community-dwelling older adults
Barnes, L. L., Lamar, M., & Schneider, J. A. (2019) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2019.05.028 · Cited by 62
Women and the risk of Alzheimer's disease
O'Neal, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Global Women's Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2023.1324522 · Cited by 60
Metadata
- Authors
- Hebert, L. E., Scherr, P. A., McCann, J. J., Beckett, L. A., & Evans, D. A.
- Affiliations
- Rush University Medical Center (US)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Rush University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Epidemiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2001-01-15
- Volume
- 153
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 132-136
- ISSN
- 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-6256
- OpenAlex
- W2105835982
- Cited by
- 331
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 6.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01ag005362-02, 5r29ag011862-05)
- National Institute on Aging (AG 10161, P30AG010161, AG 05362, AG11862)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Menopause: Health Impacts and Treatments
- Keywords
- Alzheimer's disease, sex differences, women, age-specific incidence, prevalence, mortality, life expectancy, older adults, sex-specific risk factors
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Alzheimer Disease, Boston, Female, Humans, Longevity, Male, Population Surveillance, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Incidence, Prevalence, Logistic Models, Odds Ratio, Survival Analysis, Sex Distribution
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