Feedback, Noticing and Instructed Second Language Learning

“1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 (2) When the study reported proportions of participants who showed improvements, Cohen’s d was calculated based on arcsine transformation (Lipsey & Wilson; see, e.g., Mackey, 2006 ): Cohen’s d = arcsine treatment – arcsine control .”

“…examples of these from the primary studies include: free writing tasks (e.g., Bitchener, Young, & Cameron, 2005; Spada et al., 2005), picture description tasks (e.g., Izumi & Lakshmanan, 1998; Mackey, 2006), and picture-cued information gap tasks (e.g., Mackey, 1999, 2006; Mackey & Oliver, 2002).”

“Depending on the interactional context, learners are likely to notice the corrective quality of recasts (Oliver & Mackey 2003), especially in cases where the recasts have been shortened and/or provided with added stress to highlight the error. Also beneficial are recasts provided by a teacher to scaffold interaction d…”

“Mackey ( 2006 ), for example, investigated learners’ perceptions of the gap between their own production and recasts by examining the learners’ online learning journals, conducting a stimulated recall, and administering questionnaires.”

“There is clear evidence that learners do notice the corrections they receive even in implicit types of CF such as recasts (Egi, 2007), but to date there is little evidence to show a consistent direct effect of such noticing on acquisition (see, for example, Mackey, 2006).”

“The relationship between attentional demands in L2 tasks and WM capacity is receiving increasing attention by L2 researchers (Ellis 2001; Mackey 2006b; Rai et al. in press).”

“…expended considerable effort investigating the effects of interaction not only on L2 development but also on attention, awareness, and noticing (e.g. Mackey, Gass & McDonough 2000; Williams 2001b; Philp 2003; Gass & Alvarez Torres 2005; Mackey 2006; Philp & Iwashita 2013; Sagarra & Abbuhl 2013).”

“Such activities might allow learners to better notice L2 input (Mackey, 2006), helping build resources for the future by including specific language experiences stemming from interpersonal interactions that accumulate learners’ social capital (Gregersen, MacIntyre, & Meza, 2016).”

“, Bigelow, de Mas, Hansen, & Tarone, 2006); learners’ perceptions/noticing of recasts; and whether there is modified output following the recasts (e.g., Egi, 2007a; Mackey, 2006; McDonough & Mackey, 2006).”

“, Fotos, 1993; Philp, 2003; uptake sheets, Mackey, 2006) and offline (stimulated recall, journals, questionnaires, and introspective interviews following interaction; e.g., Lai & Zhao, 2006; Mackey, 2006) data collection techniques.”

“For example, Mackey ( 2006 ) showed that learners who noticed the corrective nature of feedback improved more than those who did not report noticing (but see Bigelow, delMas, Hansen, & Tarone, 2006 ).”

“…role of recasts in L2 development (see Doughty & Varela, 1998 ; Han, 2002 ; Ishida, 2004 ; Iwashita, 2003 ; Leeman, 2003 ; Long, Inagaki, & Ortega, 1998 ; Mackey, 2006 ; Mackey & Philp, 1998 ; McDonough & Mackey, 2006 ; Révész, 2009 ; see also Long, 2007 , for a review and Mackey & Goo, 2007 ).”

“, Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975), feedback in SLA (e.g., Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Mackey, 2006), and an issue of more general concern—learning opportunities (e.”

“Current research on learner attention and noticing should provide more insightful responses to these questions in the future (e.g. Leow 1997, 1998; Mackey 2006).”

“Several studies have suggested that recasts of phonological and lexical errors are more noticeable than recasts of errors in morphosyntax (Carpenter, Jeon, MacGregor, & Mackey, 2006 ; Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001 ; Han, 2008 ; Lyster, 1998 ; Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000 ; Sheen, 2006 ).”

“A well-executed stimulated recall approach to determining what learners notice (awareness at the level of noticing) in the input seems to be a strong choice for researchers in that it provides complementary data for understanding, for example, the effect of corrective feedback (Egi, 2007; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al.,…”

“This was similar to the criterion used in other SLA studies involving question development (e.g., Mackey & Philp, 1998 ; McDonough, 2005 ; McDonough & Mackey, 2006 ; Philp, 2003 ; Spada & Lightbown, 1993 ).”

“Thus, separate measures for L2 learning should be provided to determine L2 development (Philp, Oliver, & Mackey, 2006 ).”

“…the recast as feedback or as the NS’s confirmation of meaning+ Despite the growing body of research on noticing of interactional feedback ~e+g+, Mackey, 2006; Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000; Philp, 2003; Roberts, 1995!, little research has addressed how learners interpret the recasts…”

“According to the interactionist theory, input includes materials that learners should be exposed to for language development; input is typically a target like model, which provides positive evidence to learners (Mackey, 2006).”

“Mackey ( 2006 ) described the NH as the claim “that learners must consciously notice input” (p. 408).”

“Feedback is an essential aspect of interaction, and it is generally viewed as a form of negative evidence that can help the learners notice the mismatch between the target language and their own interlanguage form (Mackey, 2006).”

“…is required on task to verbalize their thoughts aloud (Sachs & Polio, 2007 ), and (b) nonveridicality, as, under communicative pressure, learners may either fail to verbalize everything they notice, or they may report noticing that has not actually taken place (Jourdenais, 2001 ; Mackey, 2006 ).”

“Because large classroom sizes make it harder for instructors to overcome these challenges (Bruton, 2005; Carless, 2007), implementing TBLT may not effectively foster language processing and conversational interaction, which are considered essential for language learning (Mackey, 2006).”

“While there have been several empirical studies supportive of this hypothesis (e.g. Leow 2000; Izumi 2002; Mackey 2006), it is important to note that there are two separate processes”

“As Mackey (2006) and McDonough (2005) as well as other researchers have shown that feedback is an important aspect of the SLA process, future studies should address the specific contribution of interactional feedback in promoting acquisition of discourse markers.”

“…and CF can trigger this noticing process; otherwise, the given input may be unnoticed and unprocessed and thus a learner may lose the opportunity to acquire new knowledge or modify the existing L2 knowledge (Carroll & Swain, 1993; Doughty, 1994; Doughty & Varela, 1998; Gass, 1991; Mackey, 2006).”

“…include research on different types of explicit and/or implicit instruction (e.g. Benati, 2005; Ellis et al., 2006; Izumi and Lakshmanan, 1998), corrective feedback (e.g. Carroll and Swain, 1993; Mackey, 2006; Philp, 2003) and interaction (e.g. Ellis et al., 1994; Long, 1996; Pica et al., 1987).”

“…studies used stimulated sessions as a methodology for eliciting learner noticing during classroom interaction (e.g., Carpenter, Jeon, MacGregor, & Mackey, 2006 ; Egi, 2007 ; Kim & Han, 2007 ; Mackey et al., 2000 ; Mackey, McDonough, Fujii, & Tatsumi, 2001 ; Polio, Gass, & Chapin, 2006 ; Roberts,…”

“Linguistic target Using a similar method to Roberts (1995), Mackey et al . (2000) found that learners’ perceptions about corrective feedback were influenced by the linguistic target of the feedback. Ten learners of English as a second language (ESL) and seven learners of Italian as a foreign language (IFL) participate…”

“Such noticing is essential to effective L2 acquisition, especially to the acquisition of L2 forms (Mackey, 2006).”

“However, according to Amy’s SLA syllabus2, two weeks were devoted to focus-on-form techniques, and the students read articles suggesting the benefits of CF (e.g., Mackey, 2006).”

“Jake: yeah Several studies (e.g. Ammar & Spada, 2006; Bitchener, 2004; Mackey, 2006) and meta-analyses (Li, 2010; Mackey & Goo, 2007) have suggested that negotiations are conducive to second language development.”

“Greenslade, Bouden, & Sanz, 1999; Leow, 1993; Mackey, 2006; Shook, 1994; Williams & Evans, 1998; Wong, 2001).”

“…2007; Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000), with studies demonstrating evidence confirming the occurrence of negotiation for phonological features but also for L2 learners successfully understanding the intent of phonological feed-back (Carpenter, Jeon, MacGregor, & Mackey, 2006; Lyster & Saito, 2010).”

“As Mackey (2006) notes, research on second language acquisition has demonstrated that feedback develops such acquisition.”

“In the laboratory context, recasts have been shown to positively affect language learning when they were not compared to another CF condition (Han, 2002; Leeman, 2003; McDonough & Mackey, 2006) and when no control group was involved (Ishida, 2004).”

“Mackey (2006) found that learners were more likely to notice English question forms than the past tense morpheme after receiving interactional feedback, including recasts.”

“Attention to input is, then, a crucial internal variable, and research in SLA has provided empirical evidence for its role in L2 development (e.g. Leow, 1997, 2000; Mackey, 2006; Rosa & Leow, 2004).”

“While some have shown a positive relationship (e.g., Nabei & Swain, 2002; McDonough, 2005), others have either failed to show a connection (Mackey & Philp, 1998; McDonough & Mackey, 2006) or have found that the relationship depends on the nature of the modified output or repair (Nassaji, 2011).”

“Role-plays (RP) offers multiple opportunities to practice a foreign language than any other teaching activity (Lee and Smagorinsky, 2000; and Gass and Mackey, 2006).”

“There has been considerable discussion about the role of corrective feedback and its efficacy in foreign language (L2) development (e.g., Long, 1996; Mackey, 2006; Nassaji & Swain, 2000).”

“…of the nature and effect of feedback in the classroom has concentrated on immediate feedback, whether from the teacher (Doughty and Varela 1998; Lightbown 1998; Lyster 2004; Mackey 2006; Mackey, Gass, and McDonough 2000; Sheen 2004) or from peers (Gaies 1983; Gass and Varonis 1994; Oliver 2000).”

“We can think of cue focusing as an instantiation of the general role of noticing (Mackey, 2006; Robinson, 1995; Schmidt, 1990) in second language acquisition.”

“…have gathered stimulated recall comments from learners either before (e.g. Adams, 2003; Egi, 2007; Lapkin et al., 2002; Lindgren & Sullivan, 2003; Nabei & Swain, 2002; Swain & Lapkin, 2002) or after (Egi, 2004; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al., 2002) the administration of post-treatment measures.”

“…learners to use the target language for interpersonal and intergroup communication, interaction has been recognized as a necessary aspect of the languageacquisition process—a process in which the language classroom plays a major role (e.g., Hymes 1971; Long 1996; Mackey 1999, 2006; Swain 1985).”

“This observation is clearly very much in line with well-established findings concerning the need for meaning to be negotiated in the language classroom (Hall & Walsh, 2002; Mackey, 2006).”

“…feedback in incidental focus on form, although in this study teachers’ use of recasts seems to play a role in vocabulary learning, we McDonough and Mackey (2006) that there is a need to investigate the impact of recasts on L2 their effect on vocabulary learning, but, as suggested by Loewen and…”