Interaction and instructed second language acquisition

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Corrective feedback is a central component of the interactionist approach.

“however, corrective feedback is also a central component of the interactionist approach.”

• cites Russell & Spada 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Li 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lyster & Saito 2010 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Theoretical arguments and empirical investigation have been used to support the superiority of both input-providing feedback and output-prompting feedback, although some studies have also found similar effects between the two.

“Theoretical arguments and empirical investigation have been used to support the superiority of both input-providing feedback (e.g.Long 2007;Goo & Mackey 2013) and output-prompting feedback (e.g.Lyster 2004;Lyster & Ranta 2013), although some studies have also found similar effects between the two (e.g.Loewen & Nabei 2007).”

• cites Long 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Goo & Mackey 2013 sourcePartly supported

  In “The Case for Recasts” (page unavailable), the paper reviews empirical evidence that recasts aid learning. But its Conclusion says recasts and prompts may play different or complementary roles and discourages simple comparisons; it does not establish the superiority of input-providing feedback over output-prompting feedback. The citations for the other parts of the sentence are to different works. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Lyster 2004 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Collins et al.'s (2009) corpus study found that more difficult-to-acquire structures were not necessarily salient in the classroom input, implying that infrequent input may partially explain why learners struggle with those features.

“The researchers compared different grammatical structures (the simple past tense, the progressive, and the possessive determiners) and discovered that more difficult-to-acquire structures were not necessarily salient in the classroom input, implying that infrequent input may partially explain why learners struggle with those features.”

• cites Collins et al. 2009 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There has been a lack of research studies focusing on interaction and pronunciation; however, this lacuna is being addressed.

“Similarly, there has been a lack of research studies focusing on interaction and pronunciation; however, this lacuna is being addressed (see special issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition Gurzynski-Weiss, Long & Solon 2017).”

• cites Gurzynski-Weiss, Long & Solon 2017 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The extent to which learners are engaged with tasks (engagement) is a growing research area.

“The extent to which learners are engaged with tasks (engagement) is a growing research area as well (Cao & Philp 2006;Philp & Duchesne 2016;Sato 2016).”

• cites Cao & Philp 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Philp & Duchesne 2016 sourceSupported
• cites Sato 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Shehadeh (2001) showed 93% of self-initiation led to modified output during L2-L2 interaction, proportionally higher than L2-L1 interaction, after extended negotiations.

“Shehadeh (2001), in a follow up examination of his earlier data (1999), showed that 93% of self-initiation led to modified output during L2-L2 interaction, which was proportionally higher than L2-L1 interaction, again after extended negotiations.”

• cites Shehadeh 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

L1 speakers tend to provide lexically richer and syntactically more complex input than do L2 speakers.

“First, studies that compared L1 and L2 speakers as input providers reported that L1 speakers tend to provide lexically richer and syntactically more complex input than do L2 speakers.”

• cites Pica et al. 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Porter 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Sato's (2013) study, learners explained that they did not have to worry about making errors while talking to each other, especially in comparison to a teacher-centered conversation.

“In Sato's (2013) study of learners' perceptions of peer interaction, learners explained that they did not have to worry about making errors while talking to each other, especially in comparison to a teacher-centered conversation.”

• cites Sato 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

May combine two claims.

Pica et al. (1996) found L1 speakers provided more modifications after communication breakdowns but only for the picture description task.

“The analysis of frequencies of lexical and morphosyntactic modifications of the two types of interlocutors revealed that L1 speakers provided more modifications after communication breakdowns but only for the picture description task (see also Porter 1986).”

• cites Pica et al. 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Porter 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There was a greater amount of talk and more LREs when an HL learner was involved.

“There was also a greater amount of talk and more LREs when an HL learner was involved.”

• cites Bowles, Toth & Adams 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Sato & Lyster (2007) found Japanese learners modified erroneous utterances after feedback from peers more often than from native speakers, consistent across feedback types.

“Sato & Lyster found that the Japanese learners modified their erroneous utterances after feedback from their peers more often than from native speakers.This tendency was consistent across feedback types.”

• cites Sato & Lyster 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Learners sometimes provided their partners with grammatically incorrect input or concluded their interaction with non-target-like solutions.

“However, learners sometimes provided their partners with grammatically incorrect input or concluded their interaction with non-target-like solutions (see Bruton & Samuda 1980).”

• cites Bruton & Samuda 1980 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Loewen's (2003) New Zealand ESL classes, not all students participated equally in focus on form episodes (FFEs); roughly 13% were not involved in any direct exchanges.

“For example, Loewen (2003) observed that not all students in his New Zealand ESL classes participated equally in FFEs.In fact, roughly 13% of students were not involved in any direct exchanges, suggesting that any benefit for them would have to come through observing the interaction of others.”

• cites Loewen 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

For the Turkish plural morpheme, both receivers and non-receivers of feedback on others' errors outperformed a comparison group on immediate and delayed production tests, but only receivers outperformed the comparison group on the recognition test.

“Yilmaz found that for the plural morpheme both receivers and non-receivers outperformed a comparison group on immediate and delayed production tests, but only the receivers outperformed the comparison group on the recognition test.”

• cites Yilmaz 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

McDonough, Trofimovich & Neumann (2015) tested three targets in the classroom context and revealed that priming was successful for relative clauses and adverbial clauses but not for passives.

“More recently, McDonough, Trofimovich & Neumann (2015) tested three targets in the classroom context and revealed that priming was successful for relative clauses and adverbial clauses but not for passives.”

• cites McDonough, Trofimovich & Neumann 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Fortune (2005) examined four dictogloss tasks with eight advanced EFL learners; analysis of LREs revealed that learners' attention was successfully drawn to the linguistic targets as shown by the metalanguage they produced.

“For example, Fortune (2005) examined four dictogloss tasks.Eight advanced EFL learners from various L1 backgrounds worked in pairs to reconstruct texts.Although learners were not required to use the same type of syntactic structure or lexical items from the text, the analysis of the LREs revealed that the learners' attention was successfully drawn to the linguistic targets as shown by the metalang”

• cites Fortune 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Shintani (2014a) compared acquisition of English plural -s and copula be by providing young Japanese learners of English with focus on form tasks; after nine lessons of 30 minutes, the learners gained knowledge of the plural -s but not copula be.

“For instance, Shintani (2014a) compared acquisition of English plural -s and copula be by providing young Japanese learners of English with focus on form tasks.The analysis of the productive knowledge tests showed that after nine lessons of 30 minutes, the learners gained knowledge of the plural -s but not copula be.”

• cites Shintani 2014aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Breen (1987) observed differences between outcomes derived from task design (task-as-workplan) and actual outcomes derived from learners (task-in-process), and argued that this divergence resulted from an unpredictable interaction between the learner, task, and situation.

“Breen (1987) observed differences between outcomes derived from task design (task-as-workplan) and actual outcomes derived from learners (task-in-process).He argued that this divergence resulted from an unpredictable interaction between the learner, task, and situation.”

• cites Breen 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

For the Turkish locative morpheme, there was no difference between receivers and non-receivers, and neither group outperformed the comparison group.

“However, for the locative morpheme, there was no difference between the receivers and non-receivers.Also, neither group outperformed the comparison group.”

• cites Yilmaz 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Li (2014) investigated relationships between feedback types, linguistic targets (Chinese noun classifiers vs perfective aspect particle le), and learners' proficiency levels; results revealed that feedback effectiveness was mediated by linguistic targets.

“Finally, Li (2014) investigated relationships between feedback types, linguistic targets (Chinese noun classifiers vs perfective aspect particle le), and learners' proficiency levels.The results revealed that feedback effectiveness was mediated by linguistic targets.”

• cites Li 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Newton found gain scores of roughly 4 words per 30 minutes of task.

“He found gain scores of roughly 4 words per 30 minutes of task.”

• cites Newton 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Brown's (2016) meta-analysis of 21 studies showed that 43% of corrective feedback was directed to morphosyntactic errors, followed by lexical (28%), and phonological errors (22%).

“Brown's (2016) meta-analysis of 21 studies showed that 43% of corrective feedback was directed to morphosyntactic errors, followed by lexical (28%), and phonological errors (22%).”

• cites Brown 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Loewen & Isbell (2017) investigated pronunciation-focused LREs in learner-learner FTF interaction and oral SCMC, finding that only 14% of LREs addressed pronunciation with 90% targeting segmental rather than suprasegmental features.

“In the same issue, Loewen & Isbell (2017) investigated pronunciationfocused LREs in learner-learner FTF interaction and oral SCMC, finding that only 14% of LREs addressed pronunciation with 90% targeting segmental rather than suprasegmental features.”

• cites Loewen & Isbell 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Yilmaz (2016) found different effects for corrective feedback on Turkish plural and locative morphemes, which he attributed, in part, to their morphophonological differences.

“In another study, Yilmaz (2016) found different effects for corrective feedback on Turkish plural and locative morphemes, which he attributed, in part, to their morphophonological differences.”

• cites Yilmaz 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Yang & Lyster (2010) examined corrective feedback on English regular and irregular past tense and found differential impacts on the two forms.

“Among several studies that compared different linguistic targets, Yang & Lyster (2010) examined corrective feedback on English regular and irregular past tense.Having found differential impacts on the two forms, the researchers invoked Skehan's (1998) dual-mode system which distinguishes an analytic rule-based system (e.g.regular past tense) and a memory-driven exemplar-based system (e.g.irregular”

• cites Yang & Lyster 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There was considerable improvement on vocabulary items that were not negotiated, leaving Newton to suggest that negotiation of meaning is only one way that learners can learn vocabulary during communicative tasks.

“However, there was also considerable improvement on vocabulary items that were not negotiated, leaving Newton to suggest that negotiation of meaning is only one way that learners can learn vocabulary during communicative tasks.”

• cites Newton 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Brown's study also found that teachers with more experience tended to focus on lexical rather than pronunciation errors, suggesting a change in teachers' beliefs about which linguistic features to correct (Basturkmen, Loewen & Ellis 2004).

“Brown's study also found that teachers with more experience tended to focus on lexical rather than pronunciation errors, suggesting a change in teachers' beliefs about which linguistic features to correct (Basturkmen, Loewen & Ellis 2004).”

• cites Brown 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Basturkmen, Loewen & Ellis 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Learners perceived the SCMC context as being less stressful and more helpful for language learning.

“Additionally, results revealed that learners perceived the SCMC context as being less stressful and more helpful for language learning.”

• cites Parlak & Ziegler 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Basterrechea & García Mayo (2013) found that LREs were present in student interaction in both CLIL and EFL contexts, but there were more LREs in the CLIL context.

“Basterrechea & García Mayo found that LREs were present in student interaction in both CLIL and EFL contexts, but there were more LREs in the CLIL context, suggesting that there were important differences between the two contexts (see also Llinares & Lyster 2014).”

• cites Basterrechea & García Mayo 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Lyster & Ranta (1997) found that teachers provided a variety of feedback, which was subsequently categorized into six types, with recasts being the most frequent.

“They found that the teachers provided a variety of feedback, which was subsequently categorized into six types, with recasts being the most frequent.”

• cites Lyster & Ranta 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Sauro (2013) found that attention to form did occur during written SCMC interaction; however, the provision of corrective feedback was not always consistent.

“Sauro found that attention to form did occur during the interaction; however, the provision of corrective feedback was not always consistent.”

• cites Sauro 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Mackey & Goo (2007) were not able to include any pragmatics studies in their meta-analysis of interaction research; the studies included investigated only lexis and grammar.

“For instance, Mackey & Goo (2007) were not able to include any pragmatics studies in their meta-analysis of interaction research; the studies included investigated only lexis and grammar.”

• cites Mackey & Goo 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All learners viewed the conversation groups as a positive experience.

“All learners viewed the conversation groups as a positive experience.”

• cites Ziegler et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ziegler et al. (2013) found that learners who adapted to the more German conversational style became more active interactors, while those who failed to do so became more passive, but they were still able to attend to the input and benefit from the interaction.

“The study found that learners who adapted to the more German conversational style became more active interactors, while those who failed to do so became more passive, but they were still able to attend to the input and benefit from the interaction.”

• cites Ziegler et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Lee & Lyster (2015) targeted perception of the /i-I/ distinction in English, comparing instruction alone with instruction plus corrective feedback; the corrective feedback group improved more than the instruction alone group.

“Finally, in another study, Lee & Lyster (2015) targeted perception of the /i-I/ distinction in English, comparing instruction alone with instruction plus corrective feedback.Participants were given five hours of instruction over five days, and the researchers found that the corrective feedback group improved more than the instruction alone group.”

• cites Lee & Lyster 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Lyster (1998a, 1998b) found that learner uptake occurred more frequently after output-prompting feedback, suggesting that recasts were less useful than other types of feedback during interaction in promoting L2 production.

“Results indicated that learner uptake occurred more frequently after outputprompting feedback, suggesting that recasts were less useful than other types of feedback during interaction in promoting L2 production.”

• cites Lyster 1998aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lyster 1998bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Loewen & Wolff (2016) found that oral SCMC and FTF interaction had similar numbers of interactional features; however, the numbers were significantly reduced in the written SCMC condition.

“For example, Loewen & Wolff (2016) examined negotiation for meaning, LREs, and recasts in task interaction in the three abovementioned modalities.They found that the oral SCMC and FTF interaction had similar numbers of interactional features; however, the numbers were significantly reduced in the written SCMC condition.”

• cites Loewen & Wolff 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Kim (2014) found that more communication strategies, such as circumlocution and direct appeal for assistance, were present in FTF communication, while more avoidance strategies occurred in the written SCMC context.

“Similarly, Kim (2014) found that more communication strategies, such as circumlocution and direct appeal for assistance, were present in FTF communication, while more avoidance strategies occurred in the written SCMC context.”

• cites Kim 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Alcón (2002) investigated the development of requests in teacher-student versus student-student interaction in Spanish EFL classes; learners in both groups improved in their use of requests, but student-student groups engaged in more interaction, while the teacher provided corrective feedback more often in the teacher-led group.

“For example, Alcón (2002) investigated the development of requests in teacher-student versus student-student interaction in Spanish EFL classes.Learners were presented with role-play contexts that necessitated the use of requests.In addition, they were provided with explicit instruction and recordings of interaction focused on requests.Learners in both groups improved in their use of requests;”

• cites Alcón 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gilabert & Barón (2013) found that learners produced more requests in more complex tasks, and the linguistic forms used to produce the requests varied according to tasks.

“More recently, Gilabert & Barón (2013) examined the effects of task complexity on the production of request and suggestions by English L2 learners in Spain.They found that learners produced more requests in more complex tasks, and the linguistic forms used to produce the requests varied according to tasks.”

• cites Gilabert & Barón 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bowles et al. (2014) found that interaction was largely similar regardless of whether the interlocutor was a heritage learner or not.

“They found that interaction was largely similar regardless of whether the interlocutor was an HL learner or not.”

• cites Bowles et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ellis et al. (2001a, 2001b) and Loewen (2004) found that recasts were the most common type of corrective feedback, and successful uptake of the feedback occurred roughly 75% of the time.

“Results indicated that recasts were the most common type of corrective feedback, and successful uptake of the feedback occurred roughly 75% of the time.”

• cites Ellis et al. 2001aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ellis et al. 2001bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Loewen 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Saito & Akiyama (2017) found that L1 interlocutors generally provided feedback as trained, and the interaction 'seemed to have a significant impact on comprehensibility, fluency, vocabulary, and grammar but not necessarily accentedness and pronunciation'.

“Results indicated that L1 interlocutors generally provided feedback as trained.Furthermore, the interaction 'seemed to have a significant impact on comprehensibility, fluency, vocabulary, and grammar but not necessarily accentedness and pronunciation ' (2017: 23).”

• cites Saito & Akiyama 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Baralt, Gurzynski-Weiss & Kim (2016) showed that learners' level of attention to form (language awareness) was higher in the FTF mode, learners' attitude towards the task was more positive in the FTF context, and learners engaged with each other more in the FTF than in the CMC interactions.

“The researchers analysed the interactions in terms of cognitive, affective, and social engagement, and showed that, first, learners' level of attention to form (language awareness) was higher in the FTF mode.Second, learners' attitude towards the task was more positive in the FTF context.In addition, learners engaged with each other more in the FTF than in the CMC interactions.”

• cites Baralt, Gurzynski-Weiss & Kim 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Baralt & Gurzynski-Weiss (2011) found that there was no difference in learners' anxiety during either FTF or CMC interaction.

“While Baralt & Gurzynski-Weiss (2011) found that there was no difference in learners' anxiety during either FTF or CMC interaction, Baralt, Gurzynski-Weiss & Kim (2016) reported mode differences related to learners' affective aspects.”

• cites Baralt & Gurzynski-Weiss 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Smith (2012) found a strong, positive correlation between eye-tracking and stimulated recall measures, with learners noticing semantic and syntactic features more than morphological ones.

“He found a strong, positive correlation between the two measures, with learners noticing semantic and syntactic features more than morphological ones.”

• cites Smith 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ziegler (2016a) meta-analysis of 14 studies found that although there was a slight advantage for SCMC in terms of raw scores of L2 development tests, the meta-analysis did not reveal statistical differences between modalities, leading Ziegler to conclude that 'mode of communication has no statistically significant impact on the positive developmental benefits associated with interaction'.

“Although there was a slight advantage for SCMC in terms of raw scores of L2 development tests, the meta-analysis did not reveal statistical differences between modalities, leading Ziegler to conclude that 'mode of communication has no statistically significant impact on the positive developmental benefits associated with interaction' (p.2).”

• cites Ziegler 2016aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Smith & Renaud (2013) found that learners fixated on corrective recasts 72% of the time, and there was a significant relationship between fixation and correct posttest scores for lexical and grammatical forms.

“Learners fixated on corrective recasts 72% of the time, and there was a significant relationship between fixation and correct posttest scores for lexical and grammatical forms.”

• cites Smith & Renaud 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The interaction hypothesis has developed into a theoretical approach containing multiple processes associated with L2 learning.

“Indeed, the hypothesis has developed into a theoretical approach (see Mackey & Gass 2015), containing a description of multiple processes associated with L2 learning (Jordan 2005;Mackey 2012;Pica 2013).”

• cites Mackey & Gass 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jordan 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mackey 2012Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Interaction is an indispensable component in second language acquisition (SLA).

“Interaction is an indispensable component in second language acquisition (SLA).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Investigation into the effects of interaction on L2 development has been considered a component of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA).

“Investigation into the effects of interaction on L2 development has been considered a component of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) (e.g.Mackey 2006;Loewen 2015;Long 2017;VanPatten 2017b), which is concerned with the manipulation of the processes and mechanisms of L2 learning.”

• cites Mackey 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Loewen 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Long 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Robinson claims that attention is essential for L2 learning.

“Similarly, Robinson (1995Robinson ( , 1996Robinson ( , 2003) ) claims that attention, namely the 'process that encodes language input, keeps it active in working and short-term memory, and retrieves it from long-term memory' (2003: 631), is essential for L2 learning.”

• cites Robinson 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Robinson 1996Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Robinson 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Output allows learners to test their linguistic hypotheses and possibly receive feedback on these hypotheses.

“Second, Swain proposes that output allows learners to test their linguistic hypotheses and possibly receive feedback on these hypotheses (i.e. the hypothesis-testing function).”

• cites Swain 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swain 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Swain 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Output facilitates production practice and thus the development of fluency and automaticity.

“Finally, as output necessarily involves language use, it facilitates production practice and, thus, the development of fluency and automaticity (see DeKeyser 2001;Lyster & Sato 2013; DeKeyser 2017a).”

• cites DeKeyser 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lyster & Sato 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites DeKeyser 2017aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Output serves a metalinguistic function, enabling learners to control and internalize linguistic knowledge.

“Third, Swain asserts that output serves a metalinguistic function, 'enabling [learners] to control and internalize linguistic knowledge' (Swain 1995: 126).”

• cites Swain 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Negotiation for meaning is at the heart of the interaction hypothesis, with a breakdown in communication being posited as the driving force in improving learner comprehension and L2 development.

“Negotiation for meaning is at the heart of the interaction hypothesis, with a breakdown in communication being posited as the driving force in improving learner comprehension and L2 development (Long 1996).”

• cites Long 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Input is a necessary component of all theories of language acquisition, including the interactionist approach.

“Input is a necessary component of all theories of language acquisition, including the interactionist approach (Gass & Mackey 2015).”

• cites Gass & Mackey 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Schmidt's noticing hypothesis has played an integral role in the interaction approach, with the claim that L2 learning does not occur without awareness.

“Indeed, Schmidt's noticing hypothesis (1990,1995,2001) has played an integral role in the interaction approach, with the claim that L2 learning does not occur without awareness.”

• cites Schmidt 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schmidt 1995Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schmidt 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is general agreement that the cognitive constructs of attention, awareness, and noticing are part of the interaction-L2 learning process.

“there is general agreement that 'the cognitive constructs of attention, awareness, and the related construct of noticing are part of the interaction-L2 learning process (Gass & Mackey 2015: 191).”

• cites Gass & Mackey 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The interactionist approach draws strongly on Swain's Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, which claims that output is not merely a representation of L2 development but is a causal factor for L2 development in several ways.

“the interactionist approach draws strongly on Swain's (1985Swain's ( , 1995Swain's ( , 2005) ) Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, which claims that output is not merely a representation of L2 development but is a causal factor for L2 development in several ways.”

• cites Swain 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swain 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Swain 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Learners tend to process language semantically, and if they can grasp the meaning of an utterance without needing to process all of the linguistic features, they will do so.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Negotiation of form can be attributed a more didactic function, often consisting of feedback with corrective intent.

“More precisely, negotiation of form can be attributed 'a more didactic function' (Lyster 1998b: 190), often consisting of feedback with corrective intent.”

• cites Lyster 1998bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Opportunities for L1 speaker interaction are considerably limited for most learners.

“Furthermore, this is good news since opportunities for L1 speaker interaction are considerably limited for most learners.”

May combine two claims.

L1 interlocutors can interact with L2 learners in positive ways, but it is not always the case that interaction with L1 speakers is better than interaction with L2 peers.

“In sum, these studies indicate that L1 interlocutors can interact with L2 learners in positive ways, but it is not always the case that interaction with L1 speakers is better than interaction with L2 peers.”

• cites Long & Porter 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Philp et al. (2014) argued that peer interaction gives learners a context for experimenting with the language.

“In a recent comprehensive monograph of peer interaction, for instance, Philp et al. (2014) argued that peer interaction gives learners 'a context for experimenting with the language' (p.17).”

• cites Philp et al. 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A classroom environment where learners' collaborative interaction is encouraged and possibly explicitly taught is important.

“These varied findings underscore the importance of a classroom environment where learners' collaborative interaction is encouraged and, possibly, explicitly taught.”

May combine two claims.

The psycholinguistic benefits of peer interaction may include relatively longer processing time for input and output, which in turn leads to frequent feedback and opportunities for testing out or practicing the language.

“The psycholinguistic benefits of peer interaction may include relatively longer processing time for input and output, which in turn leads to frequent feedback and opportunities for testing out or practicing the language.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Philp et al. (2014) asserted that peer interaction is generally felt to be less stressful than teacher-led interaction, precisely because it will not be carefully monitored.

“Philp et al. (2014) asserted that peer interaction is 'generally felt to be less stressful than teacher-led interaction, precisely because it will not be carefully monitored' (Philp et al. 2014: 198).”

• cites Philp et al. 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peer interaction can be a good forum for obtaining input necessary for acquisition.

“As early as 1985, Varonis & Gass (1985) concluded that peer interaction can be 'a good forum for obtaining input necessary for acquisition' (p.83).”

• cites Varonis & Gass 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

May combine two claims.

An increased comfort level may positively affect learners' L2 processing by helping them notice errors in their partners' speech, correct those errors, and modify their own errors when given feedback.

“That is, an increased comfort level may positively affect learners' L2 processing by helping them notice errors in their partners' speech, correct those errors, and modify their own errors when given feedback.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

May combine two claims.

A greater comfort level seems to increase the amount of overall language production, which leads to more opportunities for language practice.

“Moreover, a greater comfort level seems to increase the amount of overall language production, which leads to more opportunities for language practice.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In such an environment, learner psychology may be aligned to psycholinguistic processes conducive to L2 development.

“In such an environment, learner psychology may be aligned to psycholinguistic processes conducive to L2 development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

TBLT utilizes peer interaction as a vehicle to enhance the effectiveness of tasks.

“Indeed, TBLT, which will be discussed in more detail, utilizes peer interaction as a vehicle to enhance the effectiveness of tasks.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Peer interaction is probably the most common type of interaction in many communicatively oriented classrooms.

May combine two claims.

Learner individual differences may affect learner interaction, as well as the effectiveness of that interaction.

“It is clear that learner individual differences may affect learner interaction, as well as the effectiveness of that interaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Task complexity has been operationalized in several different ways.

“Task complexity has been operationalized in several different ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Being active listeners (observers of LREs) can help learners acquire new linguistic knowledge, possibly by engaging in sub-vocal private speech.

“She argued that being active listeners (observers of LREs) can help learners acquire new linguistic knowledge, possibly by engaging in sub-vocal private speech.”

• cites Fernández Dobao 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The research often lacks clear pedagogical implications, especially with task complexity being operationalized in multiple ways.

“Nonetheless, the research often lacks clear pedagogical implications, especially with task complexity being operationalized in multiple ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Only a few variables have been investigated, and these with only a handful of studies.

“Only a few variables have been investigated, and these with only a handful of studies.”

May combine two claims.

Language learning aptitude may help compensate for the lack of explicit attention to language, whereas such aptitude is less important in more traditional classroom activities in which direct and explicit information is provided about the target language.

“Thus, language learning aptitude may help compensate for the lack of explicit attention to language, whereas such aptitude is less important in more traditional classroom activities in which direct and explicit information is provided about the target language (see also Long 1996;Ranta 2002).”

• cites Long 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ranta 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relationship between interaction and psychological individual differences has been a growing, yet under-investigated, area of research.

“The relationship between interaction and psychological individual differences has been a growing, yet under-investigated, area of research.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Learners should use primarily their own linguistic resources, and the goal of the task should be non-linguistic in nature.

“Learners should use primarily their own linguistic resources, and the goal of the task should be non-linguistic in nature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

This emphasis on communication is broadly in line with an interactionist approach.

“This emphasis on communication is broadly in line with an interactionist approach.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The way in which L2 learners approach communicative tasks may influence their interaction behaviour and determines the ultimate benefit of interaction.

“In general, learner psychology requires further research as the way in which L2 learners approach communicative tasks may influence their interaction behaviour and determines the ultimate benefit of interaction (Sato 2016).”

• cites Sato 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In general, the amount of information each learner holds and the way in which the information is exchanged during interaction have an impact on interaction behaviour.

“In general, the amount of information each learner holds and the way in which the information is exchanged during interaction have an impact on interaction behaviour.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The link between motivation and interaction has largely been overlooked.

“For example, the link between motivation and interaction has largely been overlooked (Dörnyei 2002).”

• cites Dörnyei 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The main focus of a task should be on communication and meaning rather than linguistic forms.

“The main focus of a task should be on communication and meaning rather than linguistic forms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Task complexity has received much attention from cognitive-interactionist researchers.

“Task complexity has received much attention from cognitive-interactionist researchers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Generally, whole class interaction, and sometimes small group interaction, involves learners interacting with the teacher, while dyadic interaction, and small group interaction generally involves learners interacting with their fellow L2 speaking peers.

“Generally, whole class interaction, and sometimes small group interaction, involves learners interacting with the teacher, while dyadic interaction, and small group interaction generally involves learners interacting with their fellow L2 speaking peers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are other aspects that influence interactional participation structures.

“There are other aspects that influence interactional participation structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

There is still much that is unknown about individual differences and interaction.

“However, there is still much that is unknown about individual differences and interaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Task complexity is affected by the attention, memory, and reasoning demands imposed by the task.

“Thus, task complexity is affected by the attention, memory, and reasoning demands imposed by the task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Private talk has a compensatory function in that it allows learners to relate the larger interaction to their own learning needs (Batstone & Philp 2013).

“Batstone & Philp argued that such private talk has a compensatory function in that it allows learners to relate the larger interaction to their own learning needs.”

• cites Batstone & Philp 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Learners tend to attend to lexical items more than grammatical items because nouns carry more important value when negotiating for meaning (Spada & Lightbown 2008).

“That learners tend to attend to lexical items more than grammatical items can be explained by the fact that nouns carry more important value when negotiating for meaning (Spada & Lightbown 2008).”

• cites Spada & Lightbown 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The pedagogical strength of priming activities lies in the fact that they 'help students produce a difficult or infrequent structure' in the classroom context (McDonough et al. 2015: 78).

“In other words, the pedagogical strength of priming activities lies in the fact that they 'help students produce a difficult or infrequent structure' (McDonough et al. 2015: 78) in the classroom context.”

• cites McDonough et al. 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The role of linguistic structures during interaction varies, with some tasks allowing interlocutors to target linguistic structures incidentally, while other tasks attempt to draw learners' attention to specific forms (Ellis 2003).

“The role of linguistic structures during interaction varies, with some tasks allowing interlocutors to target linguistic structures incidentally, while other tasks attempt to draw learners' attention to specific forms (Ellis 2003).”

• cites Ellis 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Shintani (2014a) argued that learners acquired plural -s but not copula be because -s was necessary to complete the task.

“In the same vein, Shintani (2014a) argued that learners acquired plural -s but not copula be because -s was necessary to complete the task.”

• cites Shintani 2014aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Syntactic priming concerns elicitation of specific grammatical features, and is described by McDonough & Mackey (2008: 32) as 'a speaker's tendency to produce a syntactic structure encountered in the recent discourse, as opposed to an alternate structure'.

“Among different types of priming (see Trofimovich & McDonough 2011), syntactic priming concerns elicitation of specific grammatical features, and is described by McDonough & Mackey (2008: 32) as 'a speaker's tendency to produce a syntactic structure encountered in the recent discourse, as opposed to an alternate structure'.”

• cites McDonough & Mackey 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ellis (2003) separates focused tasks into three types: structure-based production, comprehension tasks, and consciousness-raising tasks, among which structure-based production pertains to interaction.

“Ellis (2003) separates focused tasks into three types: structure-based production, comprehension tasks, and consciousness-raising tasks, among which structure-based production pertains to interaction.”

• cites Ellis 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The perceptual saliency of linguistic structures combined with learners' sensitivity to input can account for 'success and failure' in acquiring individual structures (Long 2015).

“Additionally, Long (2015) suggests that the perceptual saliency of linguistic structures combined with learners' sensitivity to input can account for 'success and failure' (p.60) in acquiring individual structures (see Gass, Spinner & Behney 2018 for a recent volume on saliency).”

• cites Long 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Learner readiness may affect which features are more salient for a particular learner (Lightbown 2013).

“Also, learner readiness may affect which features are more salient for a particular learner (Lightbown 2013).”

• cites Lightbown 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Different structures have a differential need for instruction, in particular instruction designed to enhance their salience (DeKeyser 2012).

“DeKeyser (2012) discussed the relationship between instruction and linguistic structures and argued that 'different structures have a differential need for instruction, in particular instruction designed to enhance their salience (by drawing learners' attention to the existence, patterning, and importance of the non-salient structures) ' (p. 196).”

• cites DeKeyser 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Contrary to teachers' tendency to provide feedback more on morphosyntax errors than on lexical errors, feedback effectiveness is more observable in the development of lexis than morphosyntax.

“Contrary to teachers' tendency to provide feedback more on morphosyntax errors than on lexical errors, feedback effectiveness is more observable in the development of lexis than morphosyntax.”