Cited by 330Wildlife Ecology and ConservationAnimal Behavior and ReproductionAnimal Ecology and Behavior Studies

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Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community

Creel, S., Schuette, P., Christianson, D.·2014·Behavioral Ecology

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Abstract

Predators alter prey dynamics by direct killing and through the costs of antipredator responses or risk effects.Antipredator behavior includes proactive responses to long-term variation in risk (e.g., grouping patterns) and reactive responses to short-term variation in risk (e.g., intense vigilance).In a 3-year field study, we measured variation in antipredator responses and the foraging costs of these responses for 5 ungulates (zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, and giraffe) that comprised more than 90% of the prey community available to the 2 locally dominant predators, lions and spotted hyenas.Using a model-selection approach, we examined how vigilance and group size responded to attributes of the predator, prey, and environment.We found that 1) the strength of antipredator responses was affected by attributes of the predator, prey, and environment in which they met; 2) grouping and vigilance were complementary responses; 3) grouping was a proactive response to the use of dangerous habitats, whereas vigilance was a reactive response to finer cues about predation risk; 4) increased vigilance caused a large reduction in foraging for some species (but not all); and 5) there was no clear relationship between direct predation rates and the foraging costs of antipredator responses.Broadly, our results show that antipredator responses and their costs vary in a complex manner among prey species, the predators they face, and the environment in which they meet.

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“Effects of the presence of predators and perceived predation risk Creel et al. (2014) analysed the variation of antipredator behaviours and their foraging costs in five ungulates (zebra, Equus quagga, Grant’s gazelle, Nanger granti, wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus, impala and giraffe, Giraffa…”
Habitat shifts in response to predation risk are constrained by competition within a grazing guild
Creel, S., Becker, M. S., Goodheart, B., de Merkle, J. R., Dröge, E., M’soka, J., Rosenblatt, E., Mweetwa, T., Mwape, H., Vinks, M. A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Ethology · doi:10.3389/fetho.2023.1231780 · Cited by 8
Self-citation
External body temperature and vigilance to a lesser extent track variation in predation risk in domestic fowls
Beauchamp, G. (2019) · BMC Zoology · doi:10.1186/s40850-019-0039-8 · Cited by 8
“poral basis as more information about predators becomes available [16, 17].”
Past agricultural land use affects multiple facets of ungulate antipredator behavior
Bartel, S. L., & Orrock, J. L. (2021) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arab064 · Cited by 8
“Vegetation cover is one of the most common metrics employed in studies predicting ungulate demography and behavior (Myserud and Østbye 1999), including in ecosystems of high conservation concern (e.g., Bro-Jørgensen et al. 2008; Creel et al. 2014).”
Cues and mechanisms for lateral exposure preference in the common eland (Taurotragus oryx)
Bordes, C., Ceacero, F., & Kotrba, R. (2018) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-018-2535-1 · Cited by 8
Small‐scale fires interact with herbivore feedbacks to create persistent grazing lawn environments
Singh, J., Donaldson, J. E., Archibald, S. A., Parr, C. L., Voysey, M. D., & Davies, A. B. (2024) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14645 · Cited by 7
Predator activity, proactive anti‐predator strategies and nesting phenology produce a dynamic landscape of risk to tundra goose reproduction
Johnson‐Bice, S. M., Rodrigues, C. W., Gamblin, H. E. L., Baldwin, F. B., & Roth, J. D. (2025) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2656.70128 · Cited by 7
“Responses to predation risk range from ‘reactive responses’ to im - mediate, short-term risk to ‘proactive responses’ to risk that occur before interacting with predators (Creel, 2018 ; Creel et al., 2014 ).”
Group-living decrease predation risk of individual: Evidence from behavior, hormones and reproduction of plateau pika
Zhou, R., Hua, R., Tang, Z., & Hua, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2023.1037377 · Cited by 8
“org sizes, or finding safe habitat (Childress and Lung, 2003; Creel et al., 2014).”
Large carnivore dangerousness affects the reactive spatial response of prey
Say‐Sallaz, E., Chamaillé‐Jammes, S., Périquet, S., Loveridge, A. J., Macdonald, D. W., Antonio, A., Fritz, H., & Valeix, M. (2023) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.05.014 · Cited by 7
Spatial roost networks and resource selection of female wild turkeys
Bakner, N. W., Ulrey, E. E., Wightman, P. H., Gulotta, N. A., Collier, B. A., & Chamberlain, M. J. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.231938 · Cited by 7
“Understanding sleep behavioural decisions is important to fully comprehend their impact on ecological dynamics, including resource acquisition [15], mating [16] and mechanisms reducing predation risk [17].”
Background
Variation in group sizes of sympatric Wild yak, Tibetan wild ass and Tibetan antelope in Arjin Shan National Nature Reserve of Xinjiang Province, China
Shi, J., Li, X., Lu, F., Zhuge, H.-J., & Dong, S. (2019) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00749 · Cited by 7
Plains zebras bring evidence that dilution and detection effects may not always matter behaviorally and demographically
Vitet, C., Duncan, P., Giménez, O., Mabika, C. T., & Chamaillé‐Jammes, S. (2020) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.3288 · Cited by 7
“…are also common however (Treves 2000, Beauchamp 2008), which could potentially be explained by the existence of alternative antipredator strategies other than vigilance such as grouping (Creel et al. 2014) and adjusting space use in response to predation risk (Creel et al. 2005, Patin et al. 2019).”
Background
Individual and collective behaviour of fish subject to differing risk-level treatments with a sympatric predator
Wilson, A. D. M., Schaerf, T. M., & Ward, A. J. W. (2022) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-022-03269-4 · Cited by 7
“A broad range of behavioural responses to predation risk have been documented, including increased vigilance, changes (often reductions) in activity, and increases in refuge use (Krause et al. 1998; Beauchamp 2007; Creel et al. 2014; Schaerf et al. 2017).”
Background
The group pattern of Marco Polo sheep in the Chinese Pamir plateau
Wang, M., Blank, D. A., Liu, W., Wang, Y., & Yang, W. (2018) · European Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.1007/s10344-018-1235-5 · Cited by 7
“Increasing group size is a typical proactive, antipredator response to long-term variation in predation risk (Creel et al. 2014).”
Background
Predator Effects on Herbivore Dynamics and Behavior
Chamaillé‐Jammes, S., Valeix, M., & Cromsigt, J. P. G. M. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119081111.ch10 · Cited by 8
The use of miniaturised Bluetooth Low Energy proximity loggers to study contacts among small rodents in agricultural settings
Huels, F., Broecke, B. V., Sluydts, V., Kirkpatrick, L., Olivares, I. H., Ennen, H., Vermeiren, D., Leirs, H., & Jacob, J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0312553 · Cited by 6
Disturbance‐dependent Yellow‐legged Gull (Larus michahellis) predation on Larid chicks decreases with chick age
Chokri, M. A., Hamza, F., Bennour, C., Almalki, M., & Besnard, A. G. (2022) · Ibis · doi:10.1111/ibi.13122 · Cited by 6
Temporal variation of the diet of a top terrestrial predator: the jaguar as a case study
Entringer, H., Duque, H. J. D., Chiarello, A. G., & Srbek‐Araujo, A. C. (2022) · Mammal Research · doi:10.1007/s13364-022-00648-0 · Cited by 6
“2008), and these characteristics make prey more vulnerable to detection and pursuit by predators (Creel et al. 2014).”
Background
Insights from a 31‐year study demonstrate an inverse correlation between recreational activities and red deer fecundity, with bodyweight as a mediator
Weterings, M. J. A., Ebbinge, E. Y. C., Strijker, B. N., Spek, G. J., & Kuipers, H. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.11257 · Cited by 5
“Second, we hypothesized that stress, as a result of recreational activities, reduces bodyweight (MacLeod et al., 2014 ; Zanette et al., 2014 ) and thereby indi - rectly negatively affects fecundity (e.g., see: Borowik et al., 2016; Creel, 2018; Creel et al., 2014 ).”
Background
Behavioral responses of goitered gazelles to potential threats
Blank, D. A. (2019) · Mammal Research · doi:10.1007/s13364-019-00457-y · Cited by 6
Predation risk effects on intense and routine vigilance of Burchell's zebra and blue wildebeest
Yiu, S. W., Keith, M., Karczmarski, L., & Parrini, F. (2021) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.01.008 · Cited by 6
Large Carnivores in the Tarangire Ecosystem
Kiffner, C., Foley, C., Foley, L. S., Montgomery, R. A., & Kissui, B. M. (2022) · Ecological studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93604-4_11 · Cited by 7
Assessing neophobia and exploration while accounting for social context: an example application in scimitar-horned oryx
Mertes, K., Ressijac, C. A., Moraes, W., Hughey, L. F., Alegre, L. H. P., Horning, M., Buk, T., Harwood, A., Layman, L., Mathews, C., et al. (2022) · Mammalian Biology · doi:10.1007/s42991-022-00271-1 · Cited by 6
“Because grazers cannot feed when performing head-up postures, increasing vigilance or scanning for risk typically reduces the ability of an individual to forage (Creel et al. 2014).”
Background
Group size dynamics of the endangered mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in protected areas of the Arsi and Ahmar Mountains, Ethiopia
Worku, E. A., Bro‐Jørgensen, J., Evangelista, P., Bekele, A., Atickem, A., & Stenseth, N. C. (2023) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02546 · Cited by 6
Collective order and group structure of shoaling fish subject to differing risk-level treatments with a sympatric predator
Schaerf, T. M., Wilson, A. D. M., Welch, M., & Ward, A. J. W. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.231511 · Cited by 6
“Additional responses to predation risk include reducing distances to near neighbours, reducing speed and general activity, increasing vigilance behaviour and increasing the use of refuges [36,43–45].”
Background
Under pressure: Short‐ and long‐term response to predation varies in two populations of a live‐bearing fish
Humphrey, E. A., Crespi, E. J., & Travis, J. (2019) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.12996 · Cited by 6
Understanding the dynamics of lion attacks on humans and livestock in southern Maasailand, Kenya
Western, G., Macdonald, D. W., Loveridge, A. J., Dickman, A., Tyrrell, P., & Russell, S. (2020) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605319000826 · Cited by 6
Foraging investment in a long‐lived herbivore and vulnerability to coursing and stalking predators
Christianson, D., Becker, M. S., Brennan, A., Creel, S., Dröge, E., M’soka, J., Mukula, T., Schuette, P. A., Smit, D., & Watson, F. G. R. (2018) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.4489 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Corrigendum: Short-term effects of hunting on naïve black-tailed deer ( Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis ): behavioural response and consequences on vegetation growth
Saout, S. L., Padié, S., Chamaillé‐Jammes, S., Chollet, S., Côté, S. D., Morellet, N., Pattison, J., Harris, E., & Martin, J. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1139/cjz-2014-0319 · Cited by 6
Repeatability of wildlife surveys for estimating abundance: A method to assess the consistency of detection probability and animal availability
Delaney, D. M., Harms, T. M., Harris, J. P., Kaminski, D. J., Elliott, J. R., & Dinsmore, S. J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0321619 · Cited by 5
“Ungulates occur in larger groups in open habitat where group vigilance may confer benefits [69,70,72,73].”
Proactive and reactive movement behaviours shape the antipredator sequence in a large herbivore
Vanderlocht, C., Robira, B., Corradini, A., Farra, S. D., Ossi, F., Righetti, D., Hauffe, H. C., Pedrotti, L., & Cagnacci, F. (2025) · Movement Ecology · doi:10.1186/s40462-025-00584-z · Cited by 6
“…reducing encounter and/or detection probabilities based on cumulative former experience of risk, which may be perceived as chronic in the landscape [24], predictably variable in time [18, 25] and/or predictably associated with environmental contexts (e.g. habitat type [26]; habitat feature [27]).”
Influential
Dynamics of a discrete predator-prey model with vigilance and lethality: Bifurcation analysis, and data validation
Din, Q., & Yamin, M. R. (2025) · Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.jmaa.2025.130232 · Cited by 5
Behavioural compatibility, not fear, best predicts the looking patterns of chacma baboons
Allan, A. T. L., LaBarge, L. R., Bailey, A. L., Jones, B., Mason, Z., Pinfield, T., Schröder, F., Whitaker, A., White, A. F., Wilkinson, H., et al. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-06657-w · Cited by 5
“A preferable approach is to employ a frameworkthatexploresnumerousfactorsinunison,allowingresearchersto gainamoreintricateunderstandingoftherelativeweightingeachfactorhas andtheircontributiontobehaviouralpatternsgenerally 3 .”
Method
Capybara responses to varying levels of predation risk
Avila, A. B., Corriale, M. J., Donadío, E., Bitetti, M. S. D., Ponzio, M. F., Cantarelli, V. I., & Angelo, C. D. (2022) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.05.008 · Cited by 4
“Although increased vigilance is observed most frequently, its relationship with foraging behaviour appears to be variable (Creel et al., 2014; Middleton et al., 2013; Thaker et al., 2011).”
Background
Habitat but not group size or recent predator activity affect corvid collective vigilance at carcasses
Bragato, P. J., Spencer, E. E., Dickman, C. R., Crowther, M. S., TULLOCH, A. I. T., & Newsome, T. M. (2023) · Austral Ecology · doi:10.1111/aec.13323 · Cited by 5
Fear and Hunting Cooperation's Impact on the Eco-Epidemiological Model's Dynamics
Fakhry, N. H., & Naji, R. K. (2024) · International Journal of Analysis and Applications · doi:10.28924/2291-8639-22-2024-15 · Cited by 5
“Predators can sometimes find larger groups easily, though, see [43].”
Background
Interplay of cooperative breeding and predation risk on egg allocation and reproductive output
Fortuna, R., Covas, R., D'Amelio, P. B., Silva, L. R., Parenteau, C., Bliard, L., Rybak, F., Doutrelant, C., & Paquet, M. (2024) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arae010 · Cited by 4
“For example, under high pre-dation pressure, individuals were found to trade-off the time spent foraging with vigilance behavior (Sansom et al. 2008; Creel et al. 2014), and decrease food intake and/or offspring provisioning rates (Ghalambor and Martin 2000; Tilgar et al. 2011), sometimes at an…”
Background

Authors: Creel, S., Schuette, P., & Christianson, D.
Affiliations: Montana State University (US)
University of Arizona (US)
ORCID: Creel, S.
Schuette, P.
Christianson, D.
Venue: Behavioral Ecology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2014-04-06
Volume: 25
Issue: 4
Pages: 773-784
ISSN: 1045-2249 (ISSN-L)
1465-7279
DOI: 10.1093/beheco/aru050
OpenAlex: W2106228428
Semantic Scholar: 5549597fcba6c62940491abffdc7ea645c812f77
Cited by: 330
References: 63
Citations by year: 2026: 25 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 5
FWCI: 14.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Behavioral Ecology (publishedVersion)
Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University) (submittedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (1145749, 0642393)
Panthera
Montana State University
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
Keywords: predation risk, antipredator behavior, group size, sustained attention, foraging costs, ungulates, zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, giraffe, lion, spotted hyena, predator-prey interactions, African savanna

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Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community

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