CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 98Wildlife Ecology and ConservationRangeland and Wildlife ManagementAnimal Ecology and Behavior Studies

Effects of Vegetation Structure on the Location of Lion Kill Sites in African Thicket

Open access
Davies, Andrew B., Tambling, Craig J., Kerley, Graham I. H., Asner, Gregory P.·2016·PLOS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0149098PMC PMC4766088
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Predator-prey relationships are integral to ecosystem stability and functioning. These relationships are, however, difficult to maintain in protected areas where large predators are increasingly being reintroduced and confined. Where predators make kills has a profound influence on their role in ecosystems, but the relative importance of environmental variables in determining kill sites, and how these might vary across ecosystems is poorly known. We investigated kill sites for lions in South Africa's thicket biome, testing the importance of vegetation structure for kill site locations compared to other environmental variables. Kill sites were located over four years using GPS telemetry and compared to non-kill sites that had been occupied by lions, as well as to random sites within lion ranges. Measurements of 3D vegetation structure obtained from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) were used to calculate the visible area (viewshed) around each site and, along with wind and moonlight data, used to compare kill sites between lion sexes, prey species and prey sexes. Viewshed area was the most important predictor of kill sites (sites in dense vegetation were twice as likely to be kill sites compared to open areas), followed by wind speed and, less so, moonlight. Kill sites for different prey species varied with vegetation structure, and male prey were killed when wind speeds were higher compared to female prey of the same species. Our results demonstrate that vegetation structure is an important component of predator-prey interactions, with varying effects across ecosystems. Such differences require consideration in terms of the ecological roles performed by predators, and in predator and prey conservation.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In Addo Elephant National Park’s thicket biome, lion kill sites were most strongly predicted by vegetation structure, with smaller viewsheds indicating denser vegetation, followed by wind speed and weakly by moonlight. Kill-site characteristics varied by prey species and prey sex, with kudu and ostrich kills in denser vegetation and male prey killed at higher wind speeds.

Key findings

  • Viewshed area was the most important predictor of kill sites: kill probability was roughly double at the densest sites compared to the most open sites. Median viewshed was 1498 m² at kill sites, 3813 m² at resting sites, and 731 m² at random sites; all three categories differed significantly (Kruskal-Wallis χ² = 113.7, p < 0.001; pairwise p < 0.001).
  • Wind speed was the next most important variable, while moonlight was less influential. Model-averaged coefficients were viewshed (0–50 m) = -0.179, wind speed = 0.140, and moonlight = -0.198.
  • Kill sites for kudu and ostrich had smaller viewsheds than resting sites: mean kudu kill-site viewshed was 1625 m² versus 3919 m² at resting sites, and mean ostrich kill-site viewshed was 2192 m². Distance to cover was shorter for ostrich (10.2 m) and kudu (9.9 m) kill sites than for lion resting sites (21.6 m).
  • Male prey were killed when wind speeds were higher than for female prey of the same species; male eland were killed significantly farther from cover than females (W = 134, p < 0.05). Lion sex interactions with environmental variables did not feature prominently in the models.

Methods

  • The study used GPS telemetry from six lions (three females and one male in Main Camp-Colchester; one female and one male in Nyathi) in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa, from July 2010 to July 2014. The final dataset comprised 882 investigated GPS cluster sites: 405 kills and 477 resting sites or failed hunting attempts.
  • Airborne LiDAR from the Carnegie Airborne Observatory in March 2014 mapped vegetation structure at 1.0 m resolution. Viewsheds were modeled around kill, resting, and 329 random sites using a predator view height of 0.5 m and prey view height of 1.0 m; the 0–50 m viewshed band was used in analysis due to collinearity among distance bands. Weather data came from the South African Weather Service, and moonlight was treated as present or absent at cluster start.
  • Analysis used generalized linear models with binomial error distributions and model selection/averaging over 13 candidate models, with 10,000 subsampling iterations creating equal sample sizes of 75 male kills, female kills, male resting sites, and female resting sites. A second stage used quasipoisson GLMs and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests to examine kill-site characteristics across prey species and prey sexes.

Limitations

  • Stated: because the study did not rely on direct observations of lions killing, the authors cannot definitively rule out male lions scavenging from female lions or other predators. Moonlight was coarse (present/absent) and measured at cluster start because exact kill time was unknown. GPS telemetry may miss small prey and carcasses in dense vegetation may persist longer, biasing detection.
  • Stated: LiDAR was collected in March 2014, after kill data from 2010–2014, and the authors assumed vegetation structure was largely unchanged over that period. Some prey-sex comparisons, such as zebra and warthog, had low sample sizes and were not statistically significant.
  • Evident from the text: the study is observational and correlational, so it identifies environmental associations with kill sites rather than demonstrating causation. The number of individual lions, especially males, was relatively low, although the authors state it represented all Nyathi social groups and most (~70%) of Main Camp-Colchester groups.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0149098

Cites

61 of 61 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 81 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Male prey were killed when wind speeds were higher compared to female prey of the same species.

    “Kill sites for different prey species varied with vegetation structure, and male prey were killed when wind speeds were higher compared to female prey of the same species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Moonlight was a less important predictor of lion kill sites than viewshed area and wind speed.

    “Viewshed area was the most important predictor of kill sites (sites in dense vegetation were twice as likely to be kill sites compared to open areas), followed by wind speed and, less so, moonlight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Sites in dense vegetation were twice as likely to be lion kill sites compared to open areas.

    “Viewshed area was the most important predictor of kill sites (sites in dense vegetation were twice as likely to be kill sites compared to open areas), followed by wind speed and, less so, moonlight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Kill sites for different prey species varied with vegetation structure.

    “Kill sites for different prey species varied with vegetation structure, and male prey were killed when wind speeds were higher compared to female prey of the same species.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Wind speed was the second most important predictor of lion kill sites, after viewshed area.

    “Viewshed area was the most important predictor of kill sites (sites in dense vegetation were twice as likely to be kill sites compared to open areas), followed by wind speed and, less so, moonlight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 41

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    High levels of correlation were found between viewshed measurements in different distance bands, as well as between viewsheds and minimum distance to cover.

    “High levels of correlation were found between the viewshed measurements in the different distance bands (0–50 m, 50–100 m, 100–300 m and 0–300 m), as well as between the viewsheds and the minimum distance to cover (both the distance in relation to wind direction and the absolute minimum distance) (S4 Fig).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Time intervals between clusters and the previous point ranged from 2 to 11 hours, with a mean of 7 hours (SE = 0.09).

    “Time intervals between clusters and the previous point ranged from 2 to 11 hours, with a mean of 7 hours (SE = 0.09).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Across prey species, viewsheds at kill sites compared to resting sites were smaller for kudu and ostrich, but did not differ for other prey species.

    “Across prey species, viewsheds at kill sites compared to resting sites were smaller for kudu (mean resting viewsheds: 3919 m2, mean kudu kill site viewsheds: 1625 m2) and ostrich (mean ostrich kill site viewsheds: 2192 m2), whereas they did not differ for the other prey species (Fig 5A).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Buffalo constituted less than 5% of kills found during the study, and less than 1% of male kills.

    “Whereas buffalo are a preferred prey species in several savanna ecosystems [21,57,58], they constituted less than 5% of kills found during our study, and less than 1% of male kills (Table 5), despite male lions specifically targeting buffalo elsewhere [52].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Although the probability of a site being a kill site and not a resting site increased slightly when GPS clusters originated during darker periods, moonlight did not feature as an important variable compared to viewsheds or wind speed.

    “Although the probability of a site being a kill site and not a resting site increased slightly when the GPS clusters originated during darker periods (less moonlight), moonlight did not feature as an important variable compared to viewsheds or wind speed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Managers of many small reserves reintroduce large predators into ecosystems from which they have been absent for decades, and into heavily fragmented and transformed landscapes.

    “Furthermore, in an attempt to restore ecosystem functioning and to increase tourism, managers of many small reserves reintroduce large predators into ecosystems from which they have been absent for decades, and into heavily fragmented and transformed landscapes [12,13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] MW Hayward, 2007, The reintroduction of large carnivores to the Eastern Cape, South Africa: an assessment, Oryx source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] SM Miller, 2013, Management of Reintroduced Lions in Small, Fenced Reserves in South Africa: An Assessment and Guidelines, South African Journal of Wildlife Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Protected areas are rapidly becoming the last or only strongholds for many large carnivore species.

    “Globally, populations of large carnivores are experiencing sharp declines [10], and protected areas are rapidly becoming the last or only strongholds for many species [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] G Ceballos, 2005, Global Mammal Conservation: What Must We Manage, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The 3D structure of vegetation, as viewed by predators and prey (their viewshed), has been found to be important in predator-prey relationships.

    “In particular, the 3D structure of vegetation, as viewed by predators and prey (their viewshed), has been found to be important in predator-prey relationships [16,17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] SR Loarie, 2013, Lion hunting behaviour and vegetation structure in an African savanna, Animal Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] K Lone, 2014, Living and dying in a multi-predator landscape of fear: roe deer are squeezed by contrasting pattern of predation risk imposed by lynx and humans, Oikos source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Viewsheds have previously been shown to influence predation sites.

    “Although viewsheds have previously been shown to influence predation sites [19], quantification of 3D vegetation structure and how animals perceive their surroundings is challenging in the field, and field-based measurements are difficult to translate into viewsheds (i.e. what an animal will actually be able to see).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] JGC Hopcraft, 2005, Planning for success: Serengeti lions seek prey accessibility rather than abundance, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    The viewshed around an animal serves as a surrogate for both visibility and escape processes because features that obstruct vision also hinder escape.

    “The area around an animal that is visible from the animal’s position (the animal’s “viewshed”) serves as a surrogate for both these processes because features that obstruct vision (such as vegetation or terrain) also hinder escape.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Globally, populations of large carnivores are experiencing sharp declines.

    “Globally, populations of large carnivores are experiencing sharp declines [10], and protected areas are rapidly becoming the last or only strongholds for many species [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] WJ Ripple, 2014, Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The hunting habits of predators largely determine their impact on ecosystems, through effects on prey species distributions, abundance and behavior.

    “The hunting habits of such predators are of particular interest because they largely determine the impact predators have on ecosystems, through effects on prey species distributions, abundance and behavior [4,14,15].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] WJ Ripple, 2006, Linking a cougar decline, trophic cascade, and catastrophic regime shift in Zion National Park, Biological Conservation source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [14] M Valeix, 2009, Behavioral adjustments of African herbivores to predation risk by lions: Spatiotemporal variations influence habitat use, Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [15] CJ Tambling, 2012, Spatial and temporal changes in group dynamics and range use enable anti-predator responses in African buffalo, Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vegetation structure, along with topography, is most relevant to predation through its influence on visibility, both in terms of predator concealment and prey detection of predators, as well as affecting the ability of prey to escape attack.

    “Vegetation structure, along with topography, is most relevant to predation through its influence on visibility, both in terms of predator concealment and prey detection of predators, as well as affecting the ability of prey to escape attack (see [18]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] MR Heithaus, 2009, Towards a predictive framework for predator risk effects: the interaction of landscape features and prey escape tactics, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Maintaining or restoring self-sustaining predator-prey relationships is challenging, especially within protected areas.

    “Yet, maintaining or restoring predator-prey relationships that are self-sustaining is challenging [6,7], especially within protected areas, which rarely encompass entire, self-sustaining ecosystems [8,9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [6] CJ Tambling, 2005, Modelling wildebeest population dynamics: implications of predation and harvesting in a closed system, Journal of Applied Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] MW Hayward, 2009, Reintroduction of Top-order Predators: Using Science to Restore One of the Drivers of Biodiversity source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] RWS Fynn, 2011, Functional conservation areas and the future of Africa’s wildlife, African Journal of Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] CM Beale, 2013, Ten lessons for the conservation of African savannah ecosystems, Biological Conservation source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Predator-prey relationships play an integral role as top-down ecological controls, influencing ecosystem function and stability.

    “Predator-prey relationships play an integral role as top-down ecological controls, influencing ecosystem function and stability [1,2,3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] JK Baum, 2009, Cascading top-down effects of changing oceanic predator abundances, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] GL Britten, 2014, Predator decline leads to decreased stability in a coastal fish community, Ecology Letters source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] WJ Ripple, 2012, Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: The first 15 years after wolf reintroduction, Biological Conservation source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lions, when present, are responsible for the majority of mammal herbivore mortality and biomass consumed for prey species larger than 10 kg.

    “Lions, Panthera leo, are of particular interest in predator-prey studies because, when present, they are responsible for the majority of mammal herbivore mortality and biomass consumed for prey species larger than 10 kg [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] N Owen-Smith, 2008, Predator–prey size relationships in an African large-mammal food web, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lions usually hunt in groups and are considered ambush predators, choosing prey catchability over prey abundance and relying heavily on concealment during hunting.

    “Lions usually hunt in groups [35] and are considered ambush predators, choosing prey ‘catchability’ over prey abundance and rely heavily on concealment during hunting [19].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [35] C Packer, 1990, Why Lions Form Groups: Food is Not Enough, The American Naturalist source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] JGC Hopcraft, 2005, Planning for success: Serengeti lions seek prey accessibility rather than abundance, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Recent advances in Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology have enabled much improved measurements of vegetation structure applicable to animal ecology studies.

    “Recent advances in Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology have enabled much improved measurements of vegetation structure applicable to animal ecology studies [24,25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] AB Davies, 2014, Advances in animal ecology from 3D-LiDAR ecosystem mapping, Trends in Ecology and Evolution source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] KT Vierling, 2008, Lidar: shedding new light on habitat characterization and modeling, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Imbalances in the ratio of predator to prey, or an absence of predators, can result in major regime changes and shifts in ecosystem functioning.

    “Imbalances in the ratio of predator to prey, or an absence of predators, can result in major regime changes and shifts in ecosystem functioning [4,5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] WJ Ripple, 2006, Linking a cougar decline, trophic cascade, and catastrophic regime shift in Zion National Park, Biological Conservation source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] JA Estes, 2011, Trophic Downgrading of Planet Earth, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Selection of resting clusters was restricted to those investigated within 100 days of their occurrence to reduce the risk of failing to detect carcass remains and misidentifying kill locations as resting locations.

    “To reduce the risk of failing to detect carcass remains and, thereby, misidentifying kill locations as resting locations (false negatives), selection of resting clusters was restricted to those investigated within 100 days of their occurrence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Female prey with young are generally more vigilant and tend to aggregate more compared to males and females without young.

    “Female prey with young are generally more vigilant and tend to aggregate more compared to males and females without young [40].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] J Burger, 1994, Vigilance in African Mammals: Differences among Mothers, Other Females, and Males, Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Because the study had a larger sample size of female lion kills relative to resting sites compared to male lions, data were subsampled without replacement to create equal sample sizes of kills to resting sites for male and female lions.

    “Because we had a larger sample size of female lion kills relative to resting sites compared to male lions, we subsampled our data without replacement to create equal sample sizes of kills to resting sites for male and female lions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Seasonal differences in vegetation structure will be negligible because thicket vegetation is evergreen and rainfall occurs throughout the year in Addo.

    “Furthermore, because the thicket vegetation is evergreen and rainfall occurs throughout the year in Addo [32], seasonal differences in vegetation structure will be negligible.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] GIH Kerley, 2006, The impacts of elephants on biodiversity in the Eastern Cape Subtropical Thickets, South African Journal of Science

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lions hunt more successfully when wind orientation favors stalking, enabling them to approach downwind of and closer to potential prey.

    “Lions generally hunt more successfully on darker nights when it is easier to hide [23,36], and when wind orientation favors stalking [38], enabling them to approach downwind of and closer to potential prey.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] PE Stander, 1992, Foraging dynamics of lions in a semi-arid environment, Canadian Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The relative importance of environmental variables for lion hunting can differ across prey species, lion group sizes and ecosystems.

    “However, the relative importance of these variables can differ across prey species, lion group sizes and ecosystems [23,36,37].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] KG van Orsdol, 1984, Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, African Journal of Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [37] PE Stander, 1993, Hunting success of lions in a semi arid environment, Symposium of the Zoological Society of London

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The six individual lions studied constituted all the lion social groups in Nyathi at the time of the study and most (~70%) of the lion social groups in Main Camp-Colchester.

    “Although the number of individual lions (particularly males) was relatively low, it constitutes all the lion social groups in Nyathi at the time of the study and most (~70%) of the lion social groups in Main Camp-Colchester.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The dense vegetation and absence of vultures in Addo likely makes it harder for predators to locate carcasses, both by sight and smell.

    “Furthermore, the dense vegetation and absence of vultures in Addo, likely makes it harder for predators to locate carcasses, both by sight and smell.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The stomach contents location is often considered diagnostic of the actual kill site because lions regularly move the carcass from the kill site.

    “The stomach contents location is often considered diagnostic of the actual kill site because lions regularly move the carcass from the kill site [48], resulting in frequent separation of the carcass remains and stomach contents, whereas the stomach contents are almost always deposited within a few meters of the actual kill (P. Funston, pers. comm.).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] GB Schaller, 1972, The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relations

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wind speed was important in arid savanna environments, but only for select prey species, whereas it was inconsequential elsewhere.

    “Wind speed, for example, was important in arid savanna environments, but only for select prey species [37], whereas it was inconsequential elsewhere [23].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [37] PE Stander, 1993, Hunting success of lions in a semi arid environment, Symposium of the Zoological Society of London

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lions generally hunt more successfully on darker nights when it is easier to hide.

    “Lions generally hunt more successfully on darker nights when it is easier to hide [23,36], and when wind orientation favors stalking [38], enabling them to approach downwind of and closer to potential prey.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] KG van Orsdol, 1984, Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, African Journal of Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    LiDAR measurements of vegetation height were field-validated in early July 2014, and linear regression indicated a strong positive relationship between vegetation height measured in the field and with the LiDAR (r2 = 0.90, P < .001).

    “LiDAR measurements of vegetation height were field-validated in early July 2014, and linear regression indicated a strong positive relationship between vegetation height measured in the field and with the LiDAR (r2 = 0.90, P < .001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    GPS cluster sites used for analysis were restricted to those where the most recent lion location data point was recorded less than 11 hours prior to the start of the cluster.

    “The GPS cluster sites (kill and resting sites) used for analysis were further restricted to those where the most recent lion location data point was recorded less than 11 hours prior to the start of the cluster that reflects the presence of that lion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Collinearity between independent variables was assessed prior to analysis using variance inflation factors (VIF) and Spearman rank correlation tests.

    “Collinearity between independent variables was assessed prior to analysis using variance inflation factors (VIF) and Spearman rank correlation tests [54].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] AF Zuur, 2010, A protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems, Methods in Ecology and Evolution source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The final dataset consisted of 882 investigated GPS cluster sites, of which 405 were kills and 477 were resting sites or failed hunting attempts.

    “Our final dataset consisted of 882 investigated GPS cluster sites, of which 405 were kills and 477 were resting sites or failed hunting attempts (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    All variables had VIF values below two in the final statistical models.

    “All variables had VIF values below two in the final statistical models.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Dense vegetation provides cover for stalking lions and enables them to ambush their prey.

    “Dense vegetation therefore provides cover for stalking lions and enables them to ambush their prey.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    Cheetahs are absent and leopards are very rare in Addo, not considered resident predators.

    “Cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, are absent and leopards, Panthera pardus, are very rare in Addo (with 10 sightings recorded from ~11 000 camera trap days over six years (C. J. Tambling, unpublished data)) and not considered resident predators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other environmental variables important for ambush hunting, such as moonlight and wind orientation and speed, also affect lion hunting success.

    “Other environmental variables important for ambush hunting, such as moonlight and wind orientation and speed also affect lion hunting success.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Horizontal and vertical error estimates were 16 and 7 cm RMSE, respectively.

    “Horizontal and vertical error estimates were 16 and 7 cm RMSE, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gregarious animals in general increase grouping patterns during risky conditions to increase their chances of detecting a predator.

    “Gregarious animals in general increase grouping patterns during risky conditions to increase their chances of detecting a predator [41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] S Creel, 2014, Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community, Behavioral Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This suggests an upper limit on vegetation density that provides assistance to hunting lions, with very dense areas not used.

    “This suggests an upper limit on vegetation density that provides assistance to hunting lions, with very dense areas not used.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Female lions in savanna ecosystems rely on other pride members to safeguard young cubs during group hunts.

    “Female lions in savanna ecosystems also rely on other pride members to safeguard young cubs during group hunts [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] C Packer, 1990, Why Lions Form Groups: Food is Not Enough, The American Naturalist source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dense vegetation at kill sites provides cover for stalking lions and suggests an ambush style of attack.

    “These conditions provide cover for stalking lions and suggest an ambush style of attack, in keeping with findings for lions elsewhere [19,22].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [19] JGC Hopcraft, 2005, Planning for success: Serengeti lions seek prey accessibility rather than abundance, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Z Davidson, 2012, Environmental determinants of habitat and kill site selection in a large carnivore: scale matters, Journal of Mammalogy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although vegetation structure has previously been recognized as an important component of lion hunting success, it has been considered less influential relative to other environmental variables.

    “Although vegetation structure has previously been recognized as an important component of lion hunting success [16,19,36,37], it has been considered less influential relative to other environmental variables [23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [16] SR Loarie, 2013, Lion hunting behaviour and vegetation structure in an African savanna, Animal Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] JGC Hopcraft, 2005, Planning for success: Serengeti lions seek prey accessibility rather than abundance, Journal of Animal Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] KG van Orsdol, 1984, Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, African Journal of Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [37] PE Stander, 1993, Hunting success of lions in a semi arid environment, Symposium of the Zoological Society of London

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dense vegetation in Addo likely enables single mothers to hide their cubs more effectively and so be less reliant on forming crèches and therefore groups.

    “However, the dense vegetation in Addo likely enables single mothers to hide their cubs more effectively and so be less reliant on forming crèches and therefore groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In Addo, succulent thicket vegetation is much denser than typical savanna vegetation.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In savannas, female lion hunting success generally increases with group size, and cooperative hunting is most effective in open areas where predators benefit by encircling prey.

    “In savannas, female lion hunting success generally increases with group size [23,36,37], and cooperative hunting is most effective in open areas where predators benefit by encircling prey [23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] KG van Orsdol, 1984, Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, African Journal of Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [37] PE Stander, 1993, Hunting success of lions in a semi arid environment, Symposium of the Zoological Society of London

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Our findings for male lion kills are similar to savanna lions, but female reliance on vegetation structure is unusual.

    “Our findings for male lion kills are similar to savanna lions (although we might not be recording male lion hunting), but female reliance on vegetation structure is unusual [16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] SR Loarie, 2013, Lion hunting behaviour and vegetation structure in an African savanna, Animal Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The greater importance of high wind speeds for male prey kills may be because of increased vigilance by female prey with young.

    “High wind speeds were, however, more important for kills of male prey (Fig 5C), possibly because of increased vigilance by female prey with young [40].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] J Burger, 1994, Vigilance in African Mammals: Differences among Mothers, Other Females, and Males, Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although buffalo were initially selected by lions in Addo, they later formed larger, more defensive herds and successfully fended off the majority of lion attacks.

    “Although buffalo were initially selected by lions in Addo, they later formed larger, more defensive herds and successfully fended off the majority of lion attacks [15].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] CJ Tambling, 2012, Spatial and temporal changes in group dynamics and range use enable anti-predator responses in African buffalo, Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Male lions specifically target buffalo elsewhere.

    “Whereas buffalo are a preferred prey species in several savanna ecosystems [21,57,58], they constituted less than 5% of kills found during our study, and less than 1% of male kills (Table 5), despite male lions specifically targeting buffalo elsewhere [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] PJ Funston, 1998, Hunting by male lions: ecological influences and socioecological implications, Animal Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Such conditions might result in wind speed being more important here than other ecosystems where wind is less prevalent or predictable.

    “Such conditions might result in wind speed being more important here than other ecosystems where wind is less prevalent or predictable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Given the coastal location of Addo, strong wind is fairly predictable on a daily basis, being stronger in the afternoon.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Impala were more often encountered by lions in dense bush, where darkness was considered less important because lions could rely on the cover provided by the vegetation.

    “Impala were more often encountered by lions in dense bush [52], where darkness was considered less important because lions could rely on the cover provided by the vegetation [23].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [52] PJ Funston, 1998, Hunting by male lions: ecological influences and socioecological implications, Animal Behaviour source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Not only do the hunting habitats of Addo lions differ from savanna lions, but so do the prey species selected.

    “Not only do the hunting habitats of Addo lions differ from savanna lions, but so do the prey species selected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kudu and ostrich are usually killed in proportion to their abundance (kudu) or actively avoided (ostrich).

    “Instead of typical target species such as buffalo and zebra [57], half the kills made in Addo consisted of kudu and ostrich, species which are usually killed in proportion to their abundance (kudu) or actively avoided (ostrich) [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] MW Hayward, 2005, Prey preferences of the lion (<italic>Panthera leo</italic>), Journal of Zoology, London source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Kruger National Park, moonlight was considered the most important environmental variable affecting hunting success, but not during impala hunts.

    “In Kruger National Park, moonlight was considered the most important environmental variable affecting hunting success, but not during impala, Aepyceros melampus, hunts [23].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] PJ Funston, 2001, Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park, Journal of Zoology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    A possible constraint in the methods is that moonlight was taken at the start of the GPS cluster, and we do not know the exact time of the kill and how much moonlight was available then.

    “A possible constraint in our methods, however, is that moonlight was taken at the start of the GPS cluster, and we do not know the exact time of the kill and how much moonlight was available then.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because of this, the resolution of the moonlight data is fairly coarse (moon present or absent), and results regarding the importance of moonlight should be considered with some caution.

    “Because of this, the resolution of our moonlight data is also fairly coarse (moon present or absent), and our results regarding the importance of moonlight should be considered with some caution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Buffalo are a preferred prey species in several savanna ecosystems.

    “Whereas buffalo are a preferred prey species in several savanna ecosystems [21,57,58], they constituted less than 5% of kills found during our study, and less than 1% of male kills (Table 5), despite male lions specifically targeting buffalo elsewhere [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] WF de Boer, 2010, Spatial distribution of lion kills determined by the water dependency of prey species, Journal of Mammalogy source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [57] MW Hayward, 2005, Prey preferences of the lion (<italic>Panthera leo</italic>), Journal of Zoology, London source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [58] Z Davidson, 2013, Seasonal Diet and Prey Preference of the African Lion in a Waterhole-Driven Semi-Arid Savanna, PLoS ONE source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As these processes persist and ecosystems are transformed, predators will likely change their hunting behavior and prey vulnerability will change, with implications for predator and prey conservation and ecosystem stability.

    “As these and similar processes persist, and ecosystems are transformed, predators will likely change their hunting behavior and prey vulnerability will change, with implications for predator and prey conservation and ecosystem stability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Lions are possibly selecting kudu and ostrich because they are easier to locate (kudu frequent densely vegetated areas) or catch (ostrich are less agile in thick vegetation) in dense vegetation.

    “Kill sites of these species were located in denser vegetation compared to other prey species (Fig 5A) and lions are possibly selecting them because they are easier to locate (kudu frequent densely vegetated areas) or catch (ostrich are less agile in thick vegetation) in dense vegetation, which is more common in Addo relative to savanna areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Dense vegetation is more common in Addo relative to savanna areas.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased levels of CO2 are reducing the stability of several biomes (notably savanna and grassland) and favoring the establishment of forests and denser vegetation.

    “Alternatively, increased levels of CO2 are reducing the stability of several biomes (notably savanna and grassland) and favoring the establishment of forests and denser vegetation [27,28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [27] GR Moncrieff, 2014, Increasing atmospheric CO2 overrides the historical legacy of multiple stable biome states in Africa, New Phytologist source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] CL Parr, 2012, Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch, Diversity and Distributions source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Elephants are decreasing vegetation density and structural diversity locally, with direct effects on predation patterns.

    “Elephants, for example, are decreasing vegetation density and structural diversity locally [31,32], with direct effects on predation patterns [45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [31] GP Asner, 2009, Large-scale impacts of herbivores on the structural diversity of African savannas, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [32] GIH Kerley, 2006, The impacts of elephants on biodiversity in the Eastern Cape Subtropical Thickets, South African Journal of Science

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] CJ Tambling, 2013, Elephants facilitate impact of large predators on small ungulate prey species, Basic and Applied Ecology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Our results demonstrate that vegetation type (biome) affects the way lions interact with their environment, indicating that effects of vegetation structural heterogeneity on predation patterns are not uniform across ecosystems.

    “Our results demonstrate that vegetation type (biome) affects the way lions interact with their environment, indicating that effects of vegetation structural heterogeneity on predation patterns are not uniform across ecosystems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
63 of 63

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The general structure of the vegetation would be largely unchanged over the three years preceding LiDAR data collection because perennial woody biomass accounts for the majority of the thicket vegetation.

    “Although the vegetation structure may have changed over the course of the three years preceding the LiDAR data collection, we assumed that because perennial woody biomass accounts for the majority of the thicket vegetation, the general structure of the vegetation would be largely unchanged over this time scale.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Carcasses found were killed by lions and not scavenged (from either hyenas or other lions).

    “Scavenging in Addo is relatively rare, even for spotted hyenas, Crocuta crocuta, [49] and so carcasses found were assumed to have been killed by lions and not scavenged (from either hyenas or other lions).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The majority of female lion kills are a result of their own hunting.

    “We do however assume that the majority of female lion kills are a result of their own hunting [38,48,50].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    If no carcass remains were found, lions were resting, possibly in unfavorable conditions to initiate a hunt or recovering from a failed hunting attempt.

    “If no carcass remains were found, lions were assumed to be resting, possibly in unfavorable conditions to initiate a hunt or recovering from a failed hunting attempt.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The relative importance of environmental variables in determining kill sites, and how these might vary across ecosystems, is poorly known.

    “Where predators make kills has a profound influence on their role in ecosystems, but the relative importance of environmental variables in determining kill sites, and how these might vary across ecosystems is poorly known.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Almost all previous lion hunting studies have been conducted in savanna landscapes, and so our understanding of their hunting habits is derived mostly from these ecosystems.

    “Almost all previous lion hunting studies have been conducted in savanna landscapes, and so our understanding of their hunting habits is derived mostly from these ecosystems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In Addo, succulent thicket vegetation is much denser than typical savanna vegetation.

    “In Addo, the succulent thicket vegetation is much denser than typical savanna vegetation, making it feasible for lions to almost always select dense areas as hunting habitats, relying less on other environmental variables such as darker nights.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In Addo, the majority of female lion groups larger than singletons are comprised of mothers with cubs.

    “since the majority of female lion groups larger than singletons in Addo are comprised of mothers with cubs”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Given the coastal location of Addo, strong wind is fairly predictable on a daily basis, being stronger in the afternoon.

    “Furthermore, given the coastal location of Addo, strong wind is fairly predictable on a daily basis, being stronger in the afternoon.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Dense vegetation is more common in Addo relative to savanna areas.

    “which is more common in Addo relative to savanna areas”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • 3D reconstructions of kill sites for lions in South Africa revealed novel insights into predator-prey relationships and their connection to ecosystem stability and functioning.

    “3D reconstructions of kill sites for lions in South Africa revealed novel insights into the predator-prey relationships and their connection to ecosystem stability and functioning114”

    From Perspectives in machine learning for wildlife conservation (2022) · cites this paper as [114]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Davies, A. B., Tambling, C. J., Kerley, G. I. H., & Asner, G. P.
Affiliations
  • Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
  • Nelson Mandela University (ZA)
Corresponding author
Davies, Andrew B.
ORCID
Venue
PLOS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2016-02-24
Volume
11
Issue
2
Pages
e0149098
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0149098
PMC
PMC4766088
OpenAlex
W2286797259
Semantic Scholar
94f509ceb5cbd3c3ac458060393492da34641881
Cited by
97
References
61
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3
FWCI
6.40
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Nelson Mandela University Research Repository (submittedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
  • Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
  • W. M. Keck Foundation
  • Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation
  • Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment
  • Margaret A. Cargill Foundation
  • Cargill Foundation
  • Avatar Alliance Foundation
  • National Research Foundation
  • Claude Leon Foundation
  • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
Keywords
vegetation structure, predator-prey interactions, viewshed, wind speed, moonlight, prey species, predator reintroduction, predator conservation, GPS tracking
MeSH terms
Animals, Female, Lions, Male, Predatory Behavior, South Africa, Ecosystem

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review