Cited by 330Wildlife Ecology and ConservationAnimal Behavior and ReproductionAnimal Ecology and Behavior Studies

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Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community

Creel, S., Schuette, P., Christianson, D.·2014·Behavioral Ecology

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Abstract

Predators alter prey dynamics by direct killing and through the costs of antipredator responses or risk effects.Antipredator behavior includes proactive responses to long-term variation in risk (e.g., grouping patterns) and reactive responses to short-term variation in risk (e.g., intense vigilance).In a 3-year field study, we measured variation in antipredator responses and the foraging costs of these responses for 5 ungulates (zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, and giraffe) that comprised more than 90% of the prey community available to the 2 locally dominant predators, lions and spotted hyenas.Using a model-selection approach, we examined how vigilance and group size responded to attributes of the predator, prey, and environment.We found that 1) the strength of antipredator responses was affected by attributes of the predator, prey, and environment in which they met; 2) grouping and vigilance were complementary responses; 3) grouping was a proactive response to the use of dangerous habitats, whereas vigilance was a reactive response to finer cues about predation risk; 4) increased vigilance caused a large reduction in foraging for some species (but not all); and 5) there was no clear relationship between direct predation rates and the foraging costs of antipredator responses.Broadly, our results show that antipredator responses and their costs vary in a complex manner among prey species, the predators they face, and the environment in which they meet.

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Aguiñaga, J., Jin, S., Pesati, I., & Laskowski, K. L. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.17547 · Cited by 1
“Large groups can thus exhibit greater collective vigilance and overall reduced probability of individual prey capture through the dilution and confusion effects ( Creel, Schuette & Christianson, 2014 ; Lima, 1995 ).”
Trade‐Offs Between Forage Availability, Accessibility, and Predation Risk on Winter Foraging Strategies of Wood Bison (Bison bison athabascae)
Rawleigh, G., Edwards, M. A., Epperson, D., & Nielsen, S. E. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.70385 · Cited by 1
“As such, distance to forest cover or wetland edge can be used as a proxy for predation risk, with increased distance from the forest edge increasing the potential for predation (Hernández and Laundré 2005; Bergman et al. 2006; Creel, Schuette, and Christianson 2014).”
Background
Social and seasonal risk assessment by woodland caribou: responses to habitat openness, fire, and roads
Hendrix, J. G., Brown, C. D., Gosse, J. W., & Wal, E. V. (2025) · Canadian Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1139/cjz-2024-0150 · Cited by 1
The key role of cheaters in the persistence of cooperation
Babajanyan, S. G., Wolf, Y. I., Koonin, E. V., & Rochman, N. D. (2026) · BMC Biology · doi:10.1186/s12915-025-02492-5 · Cited by 1
“Other examples include, but are not limited to, populations of grazing animals [65] and solid tumors [66].”
Spatial overlap of sea ice-associated predators and prey in western Hudson Bay
Rodrigues, C. W., Derocher, A. E., Roth, J. D., McGeachy, D., & Pilfold, N. W. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0328953 · Cited by 1
Group Selection
Северцов, А. С. (2018) · Biology Bulletin · doi:10.1134/s1062359018070142 · Cited by 1
“The anxiety behavior is enhanced if there is a potential danger (Lima and Dill, 1990; Sundell et al., 2004; CluttonBrock and Thorton, 2011; Creel et al., 2014).”
Background
Impact of food availability and predator cues on meadow vole response to social vs. non-social odorants
Garris, S. S., Rohrer, K. N., & Ferkin, M. H. (2022) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-bja10191 · Cited by 1
Social Network Analysis of female reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): Do females assort based on relatedness and age during the rut?
Bonoan, J. T., Weladji, R. B., Body, G., Holand, Ø., & Røed, K. H. (2020) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University) · Cited by 1
Drone Surveys Revealed Bottom-Up, And Not Top-Down, Effects On The Marsh Deer Local AbundancePreprint
Brack, I. V., Kindel, A., Berto, D. O., Cordeiro, J. L. P., Coelho, I. P., Lahoz‐Monfort, J. J., & de Oliveira, L. F. B. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-884511/v1 · Cited by 1
Do predators keep prey healthy or make them sicker? A meta-analysisPreprint
Richards, R. L., Drake, J. M., & Ezenwa, V. O. (2021) · doi:10.22541/au.162523153.36542496/v1 · Cited by 1
“…pre- exposure (i.e. non- consumptive) interactions between predators and prey can alter prey movement and space use behaviour (Brown et al., 1988; Creel et al., 2014; Jones & Dornhaus, 2011; Spieler, 2003) in ways that predictably increase or decrease parasite transmission (Duffy et al., 2019;…”
Background
Predator occurrence and perceived predation risk determine grouping behavior in guanaco (Lama guanicoe)
Iranzo, E., Wittmer, H. U., Traba, J., Acebes, P., Mata, C., & Malo, J. (2020) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.12510083.v1 · Cited by 1
Fear Of Predators Compromises Parental Care And Juvenile Survival In A Songbird
Dudeck, P. B. (2015) · Scholarship@Western (Western University)
Risky business: dealing with risk in a predator - prey community
Dröge, E. (2017) · Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University)
Fear not: avoidance behavior missing in species sympatric with the critically endangered West African lionPreprint
Harris, N. C., & Mills, K. L. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.06.09.142604
“For example, prey might not alter spatial 177 patterns, but instead increase group sizes and vigilance behavior as antipredator responses to 178 African lions [35].”
Background
Natural Noise Can Influence Bird Foraging and Vigilance Behavior
Sweet, K. (2021) · doi:10.18122/td.1795.boisestate
The predator-dependent replicator dynamics
Braga, I., & Wardil, L. L. (2021) · Journal of Physics A Mathematical and Theoretical · doi:10.1088/1751-8121/ac40e4
“On the other hand, because team defence is usually much better than dispersing and trying to escape, the game that is likely to be played in interactions against predators is the stag-hunt game [27, 28].”
Social anxiety: how competition, sex, and dispersal affect our propensity to interact sociallyPreprint
Faria, G. S., Bell, V., & Raihani, N. (2021) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/78gyx
References
Shorrocks, B. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118587430.refs
Grouping behaviour and activity patterns of impala (Aepyceros melampus) in a nutrient –rich and a nutrient-poor savanna in Tanzania
Mramba, R. P. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09386
“many eyes hypothesis) or increased need of time for foraging following competition with group members (Dalerum et al., 2008; Creel et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluential
Predator occurrence and perceived predation risk determine grouping behavior in guanaco (Lama guanicoe)
Iranzo, E., Wittmer, H. U., Traba, J., Acebes, P., Mata, C., & Malo, J. (2020) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.12510083
References
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Allee effect driven by predation: A study of Gause type predator-prey modelPreprint
Sasmal, S. K., Pal, S., Pal, N., & Takeuchi, Y. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1912943/v1
Social information use in herbivore prey can influence the success of biological control
Tóth, Z. (2023) · Biological Control · doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2023.105339
Insights from a 30-year study demonstrate an inverse correlation between recreational activities and red deer fecundity, with bodyweight as a mediatorPreprint
Weterings, M. J. A., Ebbinge, E. Y. C., Strijker, B. N., Spek, G. J., & Kuipers, H. (2023) · doi:10.22541/au.169755368.80054091/v1
Neural responses to social cues in the accessory olfactory bulb are altered by context and experiencePreprint
Dwyer, J., Weinberg, M., Dickinson, S. Y., & Bergan, J. F. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.11.28.569126
“The presence of a predator, similarly, promotes grouping behaviors and decreases feeding in mammals, while hunger suppresses social interactions in support of food seeking (Creel et al., 2014; St-Cyr et al., 2018; Padilla et al., 2016).”
Background
Do predators keep prey healthy or make them sicker? A meta-analysisPreprint
Richards, R. L., Drake, J. M., & Ezenwa, V. O. (2024) · doi:10.22541/au.170665053.39960740/v1
Seasonal Dynamics of Group Size and Composition in Wild Red Deer Across Ecological GradientsPreprint
Gort‐Esteve, A., Riera, J. L., Marco, J., & Ruiz‐Olmo, J. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4807961
Ecology of the Tibetan Antelope (Panthalops Hodgsonii) and Sympatric Ungulate Populations in a Cold Himalayan DesertPreprint
Ahmad, K., Nigam, P., & Suhail, I. (2024) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202408.0241.v1
Scared of the dark? Nychthemeral sociality in territorial black wildebeest (Connnochaetes gnou) bulls
Forbes, R. E., Smit, L.-A., & Kerley, G. I. H. (2024) · acta ethologica · doi:10.1007/s10211-024-00448-6
“The use of anti-predator behaviours differs spatiotemporally due to the costs of anti-predator behaviours and the spatio - temporal variation in predation risk (Creel et al. 2008 , 2014 ).”
Antipredator behaviour in semi-feral horses: innate response and the influence of external factors
Bercy, A., Ceacero, F., & Komárková, M. (2025) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-025-01933-6
“Such behaviour is in accordance with other studies on group dynamics, where it is interpreted as a strategy for group defense (Creel et al. 2014; Janczarek et al. 2020a).”
Defensive Behavior
Blank, D. A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-83504-9_16
Group Size and Social Composition
Blank, D. A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-83504-9_11
Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Wolf [ Mahihkan (Cree), Tha (Denesuline), Amaruk (Inuktitut), Canis lupus ] Occurrences on the Summer Range of the Eastern Migratory Cape Churchill Caribou Population in the Hudson Bay Lowlands of ManitobaPreprint
Brook, R. K., Harris, K. E., Clark, D. A., Lochansky, C., & Colpitts, J. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.11.648486
Interspecies Haptic Sociality: An Observation of Grooming Between Two Mongoose Species
Smith, K., Hepplewhite, M., San, E. D. L., & Somers, M. J. (2025) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.71659
“…on to improve predation avoidance through social group augmentation and its complementary advantages of cooperative vigilance; an adaptive social strategy built from a reactive response for a proactive approach where benefits likely outweigh costs of close association (Creel et al. 2014).”
The Population Ecological Characteristics of Gongshan Muntjac ( Muntiacus gongshanensis ) in Southeastern Tibet Based on Camera‐Trap Technology
Wang, Q., Yang, B., Chang, J., Wang, X., Chen, X., Li, S., Renzeng, J., Gongqiu, D., & Li, Z. (2025) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.71646
Antipredator responses of native amphibian tadpoles to the presence of invasive alien African clawed frogs
Colchen, T., Pays, O., Harmange, C., Morin, J., Moreau, E., Bonnet, M., & Pagano, A. (2025) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2025.123255
“…changes in foraging behaviour (Altendorf et al., 2001; Verdolin, 2006), habitat use (Bland & Temple, 1990; Werner et al., 1983), vigilance (Creel et al., 2014; Pays et al., 2021), activity patterns (Crawford et al., 2020; Ross et al., 2013) and aggregation (Dittmann & Schausberger, 2017;…”
Effects of generalist predation and group defense on dynamics and bifurcations of a Leslie type predator–prey system
Lü, M., Pan, Q., Shi, S., & Xiang, C. (2025) · Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.jmaa.2025.129998

Authors: Creel, S., Schuette, P., & Christianson, D.
Affiliations: Montana State University (US)
University of Arizona (US)
ORCID: Creel, S.
Schuette, P.
Christianson, D.
Venue: Behavioral Ecology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2014-04-06
Volume: 25
Issue: 4
Pages: 773-784
ISSN: 1045-2249 (ISSN-L)
1465-7279
DOI: 10.1093/beheco/aru050
OpenAlex: W2106228428
Semantic Scholar: 5549597fcba6c62940491abffdc7ea645c812f77
Cited by: 330
References: 63
Citations by year: 2026: 25 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 5
FWCI: 14.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Behavioral Ecology (publishedVersion)
Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University) (submittedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (1145749, 0642393)
Panthera
Montana State University
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
Keywords: predation risk, antipredator behavior, group size, sustained attention, foraging costs, ungulates, zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, giraffe, lion, spotted hyena, predator-prey interactions, African savanna

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Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community

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