Preservation of hand movement representation in the sensorimotor areas of amputees
Open accessAbstract
Denervation due to amputation is known to induce cortical reorganization in the sensorimotor cortex. Although there is evidence that reorganization does not lead to a complete loss of the representation of the phantom limb, it is unclear to what extent detailed, finger-specific activation patterns are preserved in motor cortex, an issue that is also relevant for development of brain-computer interface solutions for paralysed people. We applied machine learning to obtain a quantitative measure for the functional organization within the motor and adjacent cortices in amputees, using high resolution functional MRI and attempted hand gestures. Subjects with above-elbow arm amputation (n = 8) and non-amputated controls (n = 9) made several gestures with either their right or left hand. Amputees attempted to make gestures with their amputated hand. Images were acquired using 7 T functional MRI. The sensorimotor cortex was divided into four regions, and activity patterns were classified in individual subjects using a support vector machine. Classification scores were significantly above chance for all subjects and all hands, and were highly similar between amputees and controls in most regions. Decodability of phantom movements from primary motor cortex reached the levels of right hand movements in controls. Attempted movements were successfully decoded from primary sensory cortex in amputees, albeit lower than in controls but well above chance level despite absence of somatosensory feedback. There was no significant correlation between decodability and years since amputation, or age. The ability to decode attempted gestures demonstrates that the detailed hand representation is preserved in motor cortex and adjacent regions after denervation. This encourages targeting sensorimotor activity patterns for development of brain-computer interfaces.
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The SMA is an important region in the speech production network and is involved in speech initiation.
“The supplementary motor area (SMA) is another important region in the speech production network165,169 that is involved in speech initiation170.”
From The speech neuroprosthesis (2024) · cites this paper as [165]
The Introduction and Methods describe hand-movement representations in primary motor and sensory cortex, not the supplementary motor area’s role in speech. Searches for the supplementary motor area, speech production, and speech initiation found no passage addressing the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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Gaetz, W. C., Dockstader, C. L., Furlong, P. L., Amaral, S. G., Vossough, A., Schwartz, E. S., Roberts, T. P. L., & Levin, L. S. (2023) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148262 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cortical processing during robot and functional electrical stimulation
Cho, W., Vidaurre, C., An, J., Birbaumer, N., & Ramos‐Murguialday, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2023.1045396 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Marneweck, M., Gardner, C., Dundon, N. M., Smith, J. C., & Frey, S. H. (2023) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2023.103499 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Does Ipsilateral Remapping Following Hand Loss Impact Motor Control of the Intact Hand?
Tucciarelli, R., Ejaz, N., Wesselink, D. B., Kolli, V., Hodgetts, C. J., Diedrichsen, J., & Makin, T. R. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0948-23.2023 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Prospect of data science and artificial intelligence for patient-specific neuroprostheses
Buz-Yalug, B., Arslan, D. B., & Öztürk-Işık, E. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822828-9.00005-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Direct Speech Reconstruction from Sensorimotor Brain Activity with Optimized Deep Learning Models
Berezutskaya, J., Freudenburg, Z. V., Vansteensel, M. J., Aarnoutse, E. J., Ramsey, N. F., & van Gerven, M. A. J. (2022) · doi:10.1101/2022.08.02.502503 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, Y., Wang, S., Lin, N., Fan, L., & Zong, C. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121096 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Novel 2D Standard Cartesian Representation for the Human Sensorimotor Cortex
Bruurmijn, M., Schellekens, W., Raemaekers, M. A. H., & Ramsey, N. F. (2019) · Neuroinformatics · doi:10.1007/s12021-019-09441-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationEffect of pain on deafferentation-induced modulation of somatosensory evoked potentials
Dubois, J.-D., Poitras, I., Voisin, J. I. A., & Mercier, C. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206141 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pacheco‐Barrios, K., Heemels, R. E., Martínez-Magallanes, D., Daibes, M., Naqui, C. X., Andrade, M., & Fregni, F. (2024) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2024.09.001 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Fernandes, F. G., Raemaekers, M. A. H., Freudenburg, Z. V., & Ramsey, N. F. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad4178 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationHowell, P., Rabe, F., Meneghin, C., Schading‐Sassenhausen, S., Schone, H. R., Sonar, H., Paik, J. K., Freund, P., Wenderoth, N., & Kikkert, S. (2026) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0644-25.2026 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Decoding four hand gestures with a single bipolar pair of electrocorticography electrodes
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Self-citationHow Does Artificial Intelligence Contribute to iEEG Research?
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Odermatt, I., Schulthess-Lutz, M., Mihelj, E., Howell, P., Heimhofer, C., McMackin, R., Ruddy, K. L., Freund, P., Kikkert, S., & Wenderoth, N. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.05.16.594100 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Odermatt, I., Schulthess-Lutz, M., Mihelj, E., Howell, P., Heimhofer, C., McMackin, R., Ruddy, K. L., Freund, P., Kikkert, S., & Wenderoth, N. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2189-24.2025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Motor BMIs Have Entered the Clinical Realm
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Grigoreva, O., Samsonov, T., Dolgoarshinnaia, A., Lebedev, M., & Soghoyan, G. A. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2025.12.05.25341696 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Decoding Single and Paired Phonemes Using 7T Functional MRI
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Self-citationStimulus-independent noninvasive BCI based on EEG patterns of inner speech
Kiroy, V. N., Aslanyan, E. V., Бахтин, О. М., Krivko, E., Paleev, A. V., Gerashchenko, A., Shevchenko, I. G., Saevskiy, A., & Shaposhnikov, D. G. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95439-6.00011-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Offenberg, E. C., Berezutskaya, J., Müller, L., Freudenburg, Z. V., Ramsey, N. F., & Vansteensel, M. J. (2026) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2026.2111940 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationLoewenstein, D. S. L., Özkan, S., Vissers, K. C. P., & Henssen, D. J. H. A. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121463 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kromm, M., Branco, M. P., Raemaekers, M. A. H., & Ramsey, N. F. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.121837 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationTemporal responses in sensorimotor cortex during hand movements
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Self-citationfMRI Based Analysis of Represented Hand and Face Areas in Patients with Facial Lesions
Şavklıyıldız, A., Uysal, H., Özkan, Ö., Şenol, U., Özkan, Ö., Barçın, E., Süzen, E., Şimşek, B., Carlak, H. F., Polat, O., et al. (2019) · Medical Technologies Congress (TIPTEKNO) · doi:10.1109/tiptekno.2019.8895219 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
van den Boom, M., Miller, K. J., Ramsey, N. F., & Hermes, D. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.12.27.424363 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationCortical reorganization in the adult primary sensorimotor cortex
Kikkert, S., Root, V., Buehler, S., & Makin, T. R. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820480-1.00004-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Een hersenimplantaat voor communicatie
Vansteensel, M. J., Aarnoutse, E. J., Freudenburg, Z. V., & Ramsey, N. F. (2018) · Neuropraxis · doi:10.1007/s12474-018-00189-w
Self-citationFunctional and structural brain changes in patients with phantom limb pain
Kan, S. (2019) · PAIN RESEARCH · doi:10.11154/pain.34.1
Schwarz, A. (2019) · Library, Museums and Press - UDSpace (University of Delaware)
Typical somatomotor physiology of the hand is preserved in a patient with an amputated armPreprint
van den Boom, M., & Hermes, D. (2020) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/vmxdn
Exponential White Matter Growth and Major Fiber Tract Systems Assembly
Hoffmann, M. W. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108589246.004
Decoding attempted phantom hand movements from ipsilateral sensorimotor areas after amputation
Bruurmijn, M., Raemaekers, M. A. H., Branco, M. P., Vansteensel, M. J., & Ramsey, N. F. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac20e4
Self-citationSangirolamo, R. G., Antunes, M. D., dos Santos, M. C. M., & Nonino, F. (2021) · Revista Interdisciplinar de Promoção da Saúde · doi:10.17058/rips.v4i1.16667
Motor BMIs Have Entered the Clinical Realm
Caldwell, D. J., Herron, J. A., Ko, A. L., & Ojemann, J. G. (2023) · Handbook of Neuroengineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5540-1_108
Odermatt, I., Schönberg, L., Heimhofer, C., Freund, P., Wenderoth, N., & Kikkert, S. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.12.09.627466
Grünert, J. G., & Christen, S. M. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-67795-7_4
Wu, R., Berezutskaya, J., Freudenburg, Z. V., & Ramsey, N. F. (2026) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ae4cca
Self-citationCortical and Subcortical Stimulation for Pain: Network Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications
Rudd, G., & Ieva, A. D. (2026) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/10738584261463492
Optimal Size of Electrocorticography Grids for Classification of Hand Movements
Offenberg, E. C., Keller, D., Mehrkanoon, S., Berezutskaya, J., Vansteensel, M. J., & Branco, M. P. (2026) · Neuroinformatics · doi:10.1007/s12021-026-09807-z
Self-citation
- Authors
- Bruurmijn, M. L. C. M., Pereboom, I. P. L., Vansteensel, M. J., Raemaekers, M. A. H., & Ramsey, N. F.
- Affiliations
- Utrecht University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Ramsey, Nick F
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2017-10-27
- Volume
- 140
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 3166-3178
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- PMC
- PMC6411136
- OpenAlex
- W2765847708
- Cited by
- 75
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 4.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- European Research Council (320708)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- amputation, denervation, cortical reorganization, sensorimotor cortex, primary motor cortex, primary sensory cortex, phantom limb, brain-computer interface, support vector machine classification
- MeSH terms
- Machine Learning, Adult, Aged, Amputation, Surgical, Female, Forearm, Hand, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Cortex, Phantom Limb, Time Factors, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Functional Neuroimaging, Sensorimotor Cortex
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