Soldiers, Pollsters, and International Crises: Public Opinion and the Military’s Advice on the Use of Force
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Abstract When advising civilian leaders on the use of force, are nonelected officials swayed by public opinion? Scholars have long debated whether public preferences affect foreign policy, but most studies focus on elected politicians, overlooking the nonelected officials who formulate policies and advise leaders. Bureaucrats and nonelected officials are expected to provide advice based on technical expertise, yet they may have institutional incentives and civic-minded reasons to recommend actions that align with popular preferences. This potentially creates additional channels through which public opinion influences policy decisions. An original survey experiment fielded on US military officers reveals that public opposition makes military leaders less likely to recommend the use of force. This article contributes to debates on the role of public opinion in foreign policymaking, integrates research on public opinion and civil–military relations, and yields broader insights for scholars studying the behavior of officials who are not subject to electoral incentives. Al asesorar a los dirigentes civiles sobre el uso de la fuerza, los funcionarios no electos ¿se dejan influir por la opinión pública? Los estudiosos llevan mucho tiempo debatiendo si las preferencias del público afectan a la política exterior, pero la mayoría de los trabajos se centran en los políticos electos, pasando por alto a los funcionarios no electos que formulan las políticas y asesoran a los líderes. Se espera que los burócratas y los funcionarios no electos ofrezcan un asesoramiento basado en la experiencia técnica, pero que puedan tener incentivos institucionales y razones de carácter cívico para recomendar acciones que se alineen con las preferencias populares. Potencialmente, esto crea canales adicionales a través de los cuales la opinión pública influye en las decisiones políticas. Una original encuesta realizada a oficiales militares estadounidenses revela que la oposición pública hace que los líderes militares sean menos propensos a recomendar el uso de la fuerza. Este trabajo contribuye a los debates sobre el papel de la opinión pública en la construcción de la política exterior, integra la investigación sobre la opinión pública y las relaciones cívico–militares, y aporta una visión más amplia para los estudiosos que evalúan el comportamiento de los funcionarios que no son objeto de incentivos electorales. Les officiels non élus sont-ils influencés par l'opinion publique lorsqu'ils conseillent des dirigeants civils sur le recours à la force? Des chercheurs ont longuement débattu pour déterminer si les préférences publiques affectaient la politique étrangère, mais la plupart des études se concentrent sur les politiciens élus en négligeant les officiels non élus qui formulent les politiques et conseillent les dirigeants. Les bureaucrates et officiels non élus sont supposés prodiguer des conseils reposant sur une expertise technique, mais ils peuvent toutefois avoir des motivations institutionnelles et des raisons d'ordre civique de recommander des mesures alignées sur les préférences populaires. Cela crée potentiellement des canaux supplémentaires par lesquels l'opinion publique influence les décisions politiques. Une expérience d'enquête originale menée sur des officiers de l'Armée américaine révèle que l'opposition publique rend les dirigeants militaires moins susceptibles de recommander le recours à la force. Cet article contribue aux débats sur le rôle de l'opinion publique dans l’élaboration de la politique étrangère en y intégrant des recherches sur l'opinion publique et sur les relations entre civils et militaires et en apportant des renseignements plus larges aux chercheurs qui étudient le comportement des officiels qui ne sont pas sujets à des motivations électorales.
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Scholars have come to understand that the public has increasingly nuanced views on matters of national security and that public opinion can influence elite decision-making.
“However, scholars have come to understand that the public has increasingly nuanced views on matters of national security, and that public opinion can influence elite decision-making (Lin-Greenberg 2021; Sevenans 2021).”
From Public Opinion and Cyberterrorism (2023) · cites this paper as Lin-Greenberg 2021
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Public Opinion and Cyberterrorism
Shandler, R., Kostyuk, N., & Oppenheimer, H. (2023) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfad006 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lin-Greenberg, E.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lin-Greenberg, Erik
- ORCID
- Lin-Greenberg, Erik
- Venue
- Foreign Policy Analysis
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2021-04-08
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 1743-8586 (ISSN-L)
- 1743-8594
- OpenAlex
- W3155672917
- Cited by
- 91
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 2
- FWCI
- 30.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Foreign Policy Analysis (publishedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › International Relations and Foreign Policy
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Military and Defense Studies
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Keywords
- public opinion, use of force, military advice, civil-military relations, bureaucrats, foreign policy decision-making, public opposition, survey experiment, civilian control of the military, international crisis, US foreign policy, Department of Defense, United States Department of State
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