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Small Extracellular Vesicles in Rat Serum Contain Astrocyte-Derived Protein Biomarkers of Repetitive Stress

Gómez-Molina, Cristóbal, Sandoval, Mauricio, Henzi, Roberto, Ramírez, Juan Pablo, Varas-Godoy, Manuel, Luarte, Alejandro, Lafourcade, Carlos Andres, Lopez-Verrilli, Alejandra, Smalla, Karl-Heinz, Kaehne, Thilo, Wyneken, Ursula·2019·International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
DOI 10.1093/ijnp/pyy098PMC PMC6403096
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Figure 1. Characterization of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). (a) Experimental design: rats were habituated in their home cages for 7 days. Then, stress by restraint or immobilization or no stress was applied for 10 days. (b) Images of sEVs obtained by electron microscopy. Bar scale = 100 nm. (c) sEV size and concentration detected by the nanoparticle tracking analysis in 4 to 6 independent samples per animal group. (d) Western blots and (e) the corresponding densitometric quantification of changes in the content of the indicated proteins in the experimental conditions: no stress (NS), restraint (R), or immobilization (I). Equal amounts of proteins were loaded per lane (including astrocyte homogenates, AH). The data represent mean ± SEM. n = 10 for CD-63, n = 8 and 5 for flotillin after restraint and immobilization, respectively; n = 7 for TSG-101. #P < .05 in the Mann-Whitney test (used to compare pairs of data, i.e., restraint vs immobilization). *P < .05, **P < .01 in a Wilcoxon-signed rank test (to compare with a hypothetical value of 0 (no change).
Figure 1. Characterization of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). (a) Experimental design: rats were habituated in their home cages for 7 days. Then, stress by restraint or immobilization or no stress was applied for 10 days. (b) Images of sEVs obtained by electron microscopy. Bar scale = 100 nm. (c) sEV size and concentration detected by the nanoparticle tracking analysis in 4 to 6 independent samples per animal group. (d) Western blots and (e) the corresponding densitometric quantification of changes in the content of the indicated proteins in the experimental conditions: no stress (NS), restraint (R), or immobilization (I). Equal amounts of proteins were loaded per lane (including astrocyte homogenates, AH). The data represent mean ± SEM. n = 10 for CD-63, n = 8 and 5 for flotillin after restraint and immobilization, respectively; n = 7 for TSG-101. #P < .05 in the Mann-Whitney test (used to compare pairs of data, i.e., restraint vs immobilization). *P < .05, **P < .01 in a Wilcoxon-signed rank test (to compare with a hypothetical value of 0 (no change).CC BY-NC · PubMed Central
Figure 2. Proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) show that after restraint, proteins that are expressed in the brain are increased. (a) Venn analysis of the identified proteins in the experimental conditions. (b) Venn analysis of the identified proteins including the proteome of astrocyte small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). (c) The percentage of expression of the identified proteins in different body organs is shown (obtained with DAVID Bioinformatics Resources 6.8 [NIAID, NIH]).
Figure 2. Proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) show that after restraint, proteins that are expressed in the brain are increased. (a) Venn analysis of the identified proteins in the experimental conditions. (b) Venn analysis of the identified proteins including the proteome of astrocyte small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). (c) The percentage of expression of the identified proteins in different body organs is shown (obtained with DAVID Bioinformatics Resources 6.8 [NIAID, NIH]).CC BY-NC · PubMed Central
Figure 3. Network analysis of proteins identified exclusively in one of the experimental conditions (no stress, restraint, or immobilization). Dotted lines indicate indirect interactions; solid lines represent direct interactions between proteins. (a) Network analysis of the proteins identified uniquely in the small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) of the no stress group indicated the convergence of survival pathways/cell protection and intracellular trafficking. ABCB8, ATP-binding cassette, subfamily B (MDR/TAP), member 8; aconitase, aconitate hydratase; actin, G-actin; Akt, AKT1/2/3; AP1B1, adaptor protein complex AP-1, β 1 subunit; ARF1, ADP-ribosylation factor 1; CLTA, clathrin, light chain A; DBNL, drebrin-like protein; DNM3, dynamin 3; dynamin, dynamin GTPase; FYB, FYN binding protein; NUCB2, nucleobindin 2; PARK7, parkinson protein 7; PBXIP1, pre-B-cell leukemia transcription factor interacting protein 1; RPS20, ribosomal protein S20; SCAMP1, secretory carrier membrane protein 1; SKAP2, src kinase associated phosphoprotein 2; SLC2A4, solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 4; SMPD3, sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3; SNAP23, synaptosomal-associated protein 23; STX4, syntaxin 4; STXBP2, syntaxin binding protein 2; Tpm1, tropomyosin 1α; Tpm2, tropomyosin 2β; Tpm3, tropomyosin 3; VAMP7, vesicle-associated membrane protein 7; ZYX, zyxin. (b) Network analysis of proteins identified uniquely in the sEVs after restraint indicated proteins related to cellular stress responses. 26 s Proteasome, Proteasome; BAHCC1, BAH domain and coiled-coil containing 1; C1QTNF5, C1q and tumor necrosis factor related protein 5; CEP250, centrosomal protein 2; CHD8, chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 8; CLIC1, chloride intracellular channel 1; ERK, p42/44 MAPK; HECTD1, HECT domain-containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1; Histone h3, Histone H3B; HK1, hexokinase 1; Hsp90, Heat shock protein 90 kDa; HSPA2, heat shock 70 kDa protein 2; HSPA8, Heat Shock 70kD Protein 8; IDH1, isocitrate dehydrogenase 1; KHSRP, KH-type splicing regulatory protein; MAP1B, microtubule-associated protein 1B; MAPT, microtubule-associated protein tau; MTMR1, Myotubularin Related Protein 1; NCL, nucleolin; NOA1, nitric oxide associated 1; POLR1A, polymerase (RNA) I polypeptide A; Rnr, 47S Pre-rRNA, Ribosomal; RPS23, ribosomal protein S23; SPAG9, sperm associated antigen 9; SYPL2, synaptophysin-like 2; TNRC6A, trinucleotide repeat containing 6A; TUFM, Tu translation elongation factor. (c) Network analysis of the proteins identified uniquely in the sEVs after immobilization paradigm indicated protein components related to cancer and hematological and immunological diseases. 20 S proteasome, 20 S Core Complex; ABCC1, ATP-binding cassette, subfamily C (CFTR/MRP); CCT3:, chaperonin-containing TCP1, subunit 3 (gamma); CLIP2, CAP-GLY domain-containing linker protein 2; elastase, serine elastase; OC100360846/Psmb6, proteasome subunit β 6; MYH14, myosin, heavy chain 14; MYH7, beta cardiac myosin heavy chain; MYH8, myosin, heavy chain 8; NFkB (complex), transcription factor nuclear factor κ b; PGRMC1, progesterone receptor membrane component 1; PRKCB, protein kinase C β II; PSMA3, proteasome subunit α 3; PSMA5, proteasome subunit α 5; PSMA6, proteasome subunit α 6; PSMB1, proteasome subunit β 1; PSMB3, proteasome subunit β 3; PSMB4, proteasome subunit β 3; PSMB5, poteasome subunit β 5; PSMB7, proteasome subunit β 7; PSME1, Proteasome activator pa28 α subunit; SERPINA6, Corticosteroid-binding globulin, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor; SERPINB10, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade B; SERPINB6, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade B, member 6; TUBB2A, tubulin, β 2A; TUBB4B, tubulin, β 4B; TUBB6, tubulin, β 6.
Figure 3. Network analysis of proteins identified exclusively in one of the experimental conditions (no stress, restraint, or immobilization). Dotted lines indicate indirect interactions; solid lines represent direct interactions between proteins. (a) Network analysis of the proteins identified uniquely in the small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) of the no stress group indicated the convergence of survival pathways/cell protection and intracellular trafficking. ABCB8, ATP-binding cassette, subfamily B (MDR/TAP), member 8; aconitase, aconitate hydratase; actin, G-actin; Akt, AKT1/2/3; AP1B1, adaptor protein complex AP-1, β 1 subunit; ARF1, ADP-ribosylation factor 1; CLTA, clathrin, light chain A; DBNL, drebrin-like protein; DNM3, dynamin 3; dynamin, dynamin GTPase; FYB, FYN binding protein; NUCB2, nucleobindin 2; PARK7, parkinson protein 7; PBXIP1, pre-B-cell leukemia transcription factor interacting protein 1; RPS20, ribosomal protein S20; SCAMP1, secretory carrier membrane protein 1; SKAP2, src kinase associated phosphoprotein 2; SLC2A4, solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 4; SMPD3, sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3; SNAP23, synaptosomal-associated protein 23; STX4, syntaxin 4; STXBP2, syntaxin binding protein 2; Tpm1, tropomyosin 1α; Tpm2, tropomyosin 2β; Tpm3, tropomyosin 3; VAMP7, vesicle-associated membrane protein 7; ZYX, zyxin. (b) Network analysis of proteins identified uniquely in the sEVs after restraint indicated proteins related to cellular stress responses. 26 s Proteasome, Proteasome; BAHCC1, BAH domain and coiled-coil containing 1; C1QTNF5, C1q and tumor necrosis factor related protein 5; CEP250, centrosomal protein 2; CHD8, chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 8; CLIC1, chloride intracellular channel 1; ERK, p42/44 MAPK; HECTD1, HECT domain-containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1; Histone h3, Histone H3B; HK1, hexokinase 1; Hsp90, Heat shock protein 90 kDa; HSPA2, heat shock 70 kDa protein 2; HSPA8, Heat Shock 70kD Protein 8; IDH1, isocitrate dehydrogenase 1; KHSRP, KH-type splicing regulatory protein; MAP1B, microtubule-associated protein 1B; MAPT, microtubule-associated protein tau; MTMR1, Myotubularin Related Protein 1; NCL, nucleolin; NOA1, nitric oxide associated 1; POLR1A, polymerase (RNA) I polypeptide A; Rnr, 47S Pre-rRNA, Ribosomal; RPS23, ribosomal protein S23; SPAG9, sperm associated antigen 9; SYPL2, synaptophysin-like 2; TNRC6A, trinucleotide repeat containing 6A; TUFM, Tu translation elongation factor. (c) Network analysis of the proteins identified uniquely in the sEVs after immobilization paradigm indicated protein components related to cancer and hematological and immunological diseases. 20 S proteasome, 20 S Core Complex; ABCC1, ATP-binding cassette, subfamily C (CFTR/MRP); CCT3:, chaperonin-containing TCP1, subunit 3 (gamma); CLIP2, CAP-GLY domain-containing linker protein 2; elastase, serine elastase; OC100360846/Psmb6, proteasome subunit β 6; MYH14, myosin, heavy chain 14; MYH7, beta cardiac myosin heavy chain; MYH8, myosin, heavy chain 8; NFkB (complex), transcription factor nuclear factor κ b; PGRMC1, progesterone receptor membrane component 1; PRKCB, protein kinase C β II; PSMA3, proteasome subunit α 3; PSMA5, proteasome subunit α 5; PSMA6, proteasome subunit α 6; PSMB1, proteasome subunit β 1; PSMB3, proteasome subunit β 3; PSMB4, proteasome subunit β 3; PSMB5, poteasome subunit β 5; PSMB7, proteasome subunit β 7; PSME1, Proteasome activator pa28 α subunit; SERPINA6, Corticosteroid-binding globulin, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor; SERPINB10, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade B; SERPINB6, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade B, member 6; TUBB2A, tubulin, β 2A; TUBB4B, tubulin, β 4B; TUBB6, tubulin, β 6.CC BY-NC · PubMed Central
Figure 4. Network analysis of proteins in serum small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) and in astrocyte sEVs. Dotted lines indicate indirect interactions; solid lines represent direct interaction between proteins. (a) Network analysis of proteins obtained from serum sEVs of no stress group also present in astrocytes sEVs indicated protein components related to metabolic disease, endocrine system disorders, and gastrointestinal disease. A2 M, Alpha-2-microglobulin; AHSG, alpha-2-HS-GLYCOPROTEIN; ALB, Albumin 1; Alpha 1 antitrypsin, Alpha 1 antitrypsin; ANXA6, Annexin VI; APOA1, apolipoprotein A-I; ATP1A3, Na+/K+ ATPase alpha3; B2 M, beta-2-MICROGLOBULIN; CLU, clusterin; ERK1/2, p42/44 MAPK; HABP2, hyaluronic acid binding protein 2; Hba1/Hba2, hemoglobin, α 1, hemoglobin, α 2; HBB, Beta-globin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HP, haptoglobin; HPX, hemopexin; ITIH1, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 1; ITIH3, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 3; ITIH4, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 4; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MVP, major vault protein; RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family, RAB7A; SERPINA1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A; SERPINA3, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A, member 3 M; SERPINC1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade C, member 1; TTR, Transthyretin isomer 1. (b) Network analysis of the proteins obtained from serum sEVs after restraint also present in astrocytic sEVs indicating the protein components related to metabolic disease, neurological disease, and psychological disorders. A2 M, alpha-2-macroglobulin; AHSG, alpha-2-HS-GLYCOPROTEIN; Akt, AKT1/2/3; ALB, Albumin 1; APOA1, apolipoprotein A-I; APOE, Apolipoprotein E; CLU, clusterin; CP, ceruloplasmin; CPN1, carboxypeptidase N; FGA, Fibrinogen A α; Hba1/Hba2, hemoglobin, α 1, hemoglobin, α 2; HBB, Beta-globin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HPX, hemopexin; ITIH1, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 1; ITIH3, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 3; ITIH4, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 4; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MFGE8, milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 protein; PLG, plasminogen; RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family, RAB7A; SERPINA1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A; SERPINC1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade C, member 1; TTR, Transthyretin isomer 1. (c) Network analysis of the proteins obtained from the serum sEVs after immobilization paradigm also present in astrocytic sEVs. Network related to neurological and metabolic diseases. A2 M, alpha-2-macroglobulin; AFM, serum albumin, α-Alb; Akt, AKT1/2/3; ALB, albumin 1; APOA1, apolipoprotein A-I; CLU, clusterin; CP, ceruloplasmin; FGA, alpha-fibrinogen; Hba1/Hba2, hemoglobin, α 1, hemoglobin, α 2; HBB, Beta-globin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; hemoglobin, hemoglobin; HP, haptoglobin; HPX, hemopexin; ITIH1, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 1; ITIH3, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 3; ITIH4, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 4; SERPINA1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A, member 1; SERPINC1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade C; SERPINF1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade F, member 1; TTR, transthyretin isomer 1. (d) Network related to inflammatory response. ACTB, actin β; Actin, G-actin; ANXA1, annexin A1; ANXA4, annexin A4; ANXA5, annexin A5; B2 M, beta-2-MICROGLOBULIN; CFL1, cofilin 1; CKB, Creatine kinase b chain; Cofilin; EMILIN1, elastin microfibril interfacer 1; ERK1/2, p42/44 MAPK; Erm; F Actin, Filamentous actin; GSN, Gelsolin; MSN, moesin; MYADM, myeloid-associated differentiation marker; PFN1, profilin 1; PPIA, peptidylprolyl isomerase A; PPIB, peptidylprolyl isomerase B; PRDX5, Peroxiredoxin 5; RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family, RAB7A; WDR1, WD repeat domain 1.
Figure 4. Network analysis of proteins in serum small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) and in astrocyte sEVs. Dotted lines indicate indirect interactions; solid lines represent direct interaction between proteins. (a) Network analysis of proteins obtained from serum sEVs of no stress group also present in astrocytes sEVs indicated protein components related to metabolic disease, endocrine system disorders, and gastrointestinal disease. A2 M, Alpha-2-microglobulin; AHSG, alpha-2-HS-GLYCOPROTEIN; ALB, Albumin 1; Alpha 1 antitrypsin, Alpha 1 antitrypsin; ANXA6, Annexin VI; APOA1, apolipoprotein A-I; ATP1A3, Na+/K+ ATPase alpha3; B2 M, beta-2-MICROGLOBULIN; CLU, clusterin; ERK1/2, p42/44 MAPK; HABP2, hyaluronic acid binding protein 2; Hba1/Hba2, hemoglobin, α 1, hemoglobin, α 2; HBB, Beta-globin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HP, haptoglobin; HPX, hemopexin; ITIH1, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 1; ITIH3, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 3; ITIH4, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 4; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MVP, major vault protein; RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family, RAB7A; SERPINA1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A; SERPINA3, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A, member 3 M; SERPINC1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade C, member 1; TTR, Transthyretin isomer 1. (b) Network analysis of the proteins obtained from serum sEVs after restraint also present in astrocytic sEVs indicating the protein components related to metabolic disease, neurological disease, and psychological disorders. A2 M, alpha-2-macroglobulin; AHSG, alpha-2-HS-GLYCOPROTEIN; Akt, AKT1/2/3; ALB, Albumin 1; APOA1, apolipoprotein A-I; APOE, Apolipoprotein E; CLU, clusterin; CP, ceruloplasmin; CPN1, carboxypeptidase N; FGA, Fibrinogen A α; Hba1/Hba2, hemoglobin, α 1, hemoglobin, α 2; HBB, Beta-globin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HPX, hemopexin; ITIH1, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 1; ITIH3, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 3; ITIH4, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 4; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MFGE8, milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 protein; PLG, plasminogen; RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family, RAB7A; SERPINA1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A; SERPINC1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade C, member 1; TTR, Transthyretin isomer 1. (c) Network analysis of the proteins obtained from the serum sEVs after immobilization paradigm also present in astrocytic sEVs. Network related to neurological and metabolic diseases. A2 M, alpha-2-macroglobulin; AFM, serum albumin, α-Alb; Akt, AKT1/2/3; ALB, albumin 1; APOA1, apolipoprotein A-I; CLU, clusterin; CP, ceruloplasmin; FGA, alpha-fibrinogen; Hba1/Hba2, hemoglobin, α 1, hemoglobin, α 2; HBB, Beta-globin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; hemoglobin, hemoglobin; HP, haptoglobin; HPX, hemopexin; ITIH1, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 1; ITIH3, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 3; ITIH4, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor, heavy chain 4; SERPINA1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade A, member 1; SERPINC1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade C; SERPINF1, serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade F, member 1; TTR, transthyretin isomer 1. (d) Network related to inflammatory response. ACTB, actin β; Actin, G-actin; ANXA1, annexin A1; ANXA4, annexin A4; ANXA5, annexin A5; B2 M, beta-2-MICROGLOBULIN; CFL1, cofilin 1; CKB, Creatine kinase b chain; Cofilin; EMILIN1, elastin microfibril interfacer 1; ERK1/2, p42/44 MAPK; Erm; F Actin, Filamentous actin; GSN, Gelsolin; MSN, moesin; MYADM, myeloid-associated differentiation marker; PFN1, profilin 1; PPIA, peptidylprolyl isomerase A; PPIB, peptidylprolyl isomerase B; PRDX5, Peroxiredoxin 5; RAB7A, member RAS oncogene family, RAB7A; WDR1, WD repeat domain 1.CC BY-NC · PubMed Central
Figure 5. Proteins expressed in astrocytes (aldolase C and glial fibrillary acid protein [GFAP]) are differentially present in small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) obtained after restraint or immobilization. (a) Representative western blots of the indicated proteins and (b) corresponding densitometric quantification. (c) Representation of the antigenic peptides that were used for generation of the Santa Cruz antibodies (A and C), while B indicates the antigenic peptide that was used for the generation of the Abcam antibody. Finally, a monoclonal antibody generated against a crude homogenate of cerebellum and electrosensory lateral line lobe from a weakly electric fish was used (gift from Dr. Richard Hawkes, University of Calgary). (d) Western blots of aldolase C using antibodies of the different sources and directed against different antigenic peptides in the protein. (e) Possible small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)ylating residues of aldolase C are indicated. (f) Western blots of sEVs using anti-SUMO antibodies. (g) Western blots of immunoprecipitated aldolase C (left) and SUMO (right) using SUMO antibody (upper) or aldolase C antibody (lower). The IgG lane indicates the respective control conditions. AH, astrocyte homogenates; I, stress by immobilization; NS, no stress; R, stress by restraint. N = 5–7; #P < .05; ##P < .0 in Mann-Whitney tests (to compare pairs of data, i.e., restraint vs immobilization); *P < .05 in a Wilcoxon-signed rank test (to compare fold changes with a hypothetical value of 1 (no change).
Figure 5. Proteins expressed in astrocytes (aldolase C and glial fibrillary acid protein [GFAP]) are differentially present in small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) obtained after restraint or immobilization. (a) Representative western blots of the indicated proteins and (b) corresponding densitometric quantification. (c) Representation of the antigenic peptides that were used for generation of the Santa Cruz antibodies (A and C), while B indicates the antigenic peptide that was used for the generation of the Abcam antibody. Finally, a monoclonal antibody generated against a crude homogenate of cerebellum and electrosensory lateral line lobe from a weakly electric fish was used (gift from Dr. Richard Hawkes, University of Calgary). (d) Western blots of aldolase C using antibodies of the different sources and directed against different antigenic peptides in the protein. (e) Possible small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)ylating residues of aldolase C are indicated. (f) Western blots of sEVs using anti-SUMO antibodies. (g) Western blots of immunoprecipitated aldolase C (left) and SUMO (right) using SUMO antibody (upper) or aldolase C antibody (lower). The IgG lane indicates the respective control conditions. AH, astrocyte homogenates; I, stress by immobilization; NS, no stress; R, stress by restraint. N = 5–7; #P < .05; ##P < .0 in Mann-Whitney tests (to compare pairs of data, i.e., restraint vs immobilization); *P < .05 in a Wilcoxon-signed rank test (to compare fold changes with a hypothetical value of 1 (no change).CC BY-NC · PubMed Central
Figure 6. Aldolase C tagged with green fluorescent protein (C-GFP) expressed in forebrain astrocytes is detected in extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated from the blood. (a) Scheme of the in utero electroporation. Forebrain astrocytes were transduced by in utero electroporation with aldolase C-GFP or GFP. Plasmids were injected into the left lateral ventricle on embryonic day 18.5. The orientation of the electrodes used to apply the voltage pulse is shown. (b) Immunohistofluorescent detection of glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) and GFP in coronal brain slices indicated that cells positive for both proteins were detected in the borders of the lateral ventricles (LV, indicated by arrows), and (c) in the hilus of the dentate gyrus (DG). Gr, granule cells. (d) Aldolase C (left) or GFP (right) was detected in astrocyte homogenates (AH) electroporated with aldolase C-GFP or in sEVs isolated from the serum of these animals. Note that in the sEVs, the modified form of aldolase C was detected (~ 55 kDa), as well as the recombinant protein (~ 70 kDa), which was also visible with the GFP antibody. (e) Aldolase C (left) or GFP (right) was detected in the astrocyte homogenates (AH) that were electroporated with GFP or in extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolated from the serum of these animals. Note that in sEVs, the modified form of aldolase C was detected (~ 55 kDa), while in these animals, no GFP could be detected in the EVs. Observations were conducted in n = 5 independent animal groups (n = 4 rats per group for blood collection). (f) EVs bearing the glial glutamate transporter EAAT2 in their membrane are enriched in aldolase C. EVs were immunoisolated in nondenaturating conditions with an antibody directed against an extracellular epitope of EAAT2. The input lane was loaded with 8% of the EVs used for the precipitation procedure (i.e., 20 µg). Note that EAAT2 can only be detected in the input after overexposure of the same blot (right lanes), revealing a huge enrichment of EAAT2-bearing vesicles in the isolated material that in turn also contains higher aldolase C levels compared with the input EVs.
Figure 6. Aldolase C tagged with green fluorescent protein (C-GFP) expressed in forebrain astrocytes is detected in extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated from the blood. (a) Scheme of the in utero electroporation. Forebrain astrocytes were transduced by in utero electroporation with aldolase C-GFP or GFP. Plasmids were injected into the left lateral ventricle on embryonic day 18.5. The orientation of the electrodes used to apply the voltage pulse is shown. (b) Immunohistofluorescent detection of glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) and GFP in coronal brain slices indicated that cells positive for both proteins were detected in the borders of the lateral ventricles (LV, indicated by arrows), and (c) in the hilus of the dentate gyrus (DG). Gr, granule cells. (d) Aldolase C (left) or GFP (right) was detected in astrocyte homogenates (AH) electroporated with aldolase C-GFP or in sEVs isolated from the serum of these animals. Note that in the sEVs, the modified form of aldolase C was detected (~ 55 kDa), as well as the recombinant protein (~ 70 kDa), which was also visible with the GFP antibody. (e) Aldolase C (left) or GFP (right) was detected in the astrocyte homogenates (AH) that were electroporated with GFP or in extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolated from the serum of these animals. Note that in sEVs, the modified form of aldolase C was detected (~ 55 kDa), while in these animals, no GFP could be detected in the EVs. Observations were conducted in n = 5 independent animal groups (n = 4 rats per group for blood collection). (f) EVs bearing the glial glutamate transporter EAAT2 in their membrane are enriched in aldolase C. EVs were immunoisolated in nondenaturating conditions with an antibody directed against an extracellular epitope of EAAT2. The input lane was loaded with 8% of the EVs used for the precipitation procedure (i.e., 20 µg). Note that EAAT2 can only be detected in the input after overexposure of the same blot (right lanes), revealing a huge enrichment of EAAT2-bearing vesicles in the isolated material that in turn also contains higher aldolase C levels compared with the input EVs.CC BY-NC · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Gómez-Molina, C., Sandoval, M., Henzi, R., Ramírez, J. P., Varas-Godoy, M., Luarte, A., Lafourcade, C. A., Lopez-Verrilli, A., Smalla, K.-H., Kaehne, T., & Wyneken, U.
Affiliations
  • Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Universidad de los Andes, Chile
  • Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
  • Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
ORCID
Sandoval, Mauricio
Venue
International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2018-12-08
Volume
22
Issue
3
Pages
232-246
ISSN
  • 1461-1457
  • 1469-5111
DOI
10.1093/ijnp/pyy098
PMC
PMC6403096
Cited by
76
References
9
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ (vor)
Funders
Chilean government

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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