The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot
Open accessAbstract
Disclosing personal information to another person has beneficial emotional, relational, and psychological outcomes. When disclosers believe they are interacting with a computer instead of another person, such as a chatbot that can simulate human-to-human conversation, outcomes may be undermined, enhanced, or equivalent. Our experiment examined downstream effects after emotional versus factual disclosures in conversations with a supposed chatbot or person. The effects of emotional disclosure were equivalent whether participants thought they were disclosing to a chatbot or to a person. This study advances current understanding of disclosure and whether its impact is altered by technology, providing support for media equivalency as a primary mechanism for the consequences of disclosing to a chatbot.
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Claims the paper makes
35 Own result · 21 No full text of the sources · 16 Own interpretation · 9 Own method · 7 Sources not found · 7 Not checked yet · 2 No basis given · 1 Supported · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“These data confirm prior research that intimate disclosure leads to beneficial downstream outcomes through these mechanisms, as the Perceived Understanding and Disclosure Processing Hypotheses suggest (Pennebaker, 1993; Reis et al., 2017).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pennebaker, 1993 source
- Partly supportedcites Reis et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 6.1 says disclosure can foster a partner’s understanding and responsiveness, and Section 7 describes benefits associated with feeling understood. But Section 7 calls mediation by perceived understanding an “as yet untested” prediction. The paper therefore supports parts of the proposed pathway, not the stronger claim that prior research established beneficial outcomes through those mechanisms; it does not identify the named hypotheses. (LLM, conf=0.86)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The associations between processes and outcomes reflect causal effects of processes on outcomes.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was the case even though the confederates themselves did not use fewer conjugations or non-fluencies in the chatbot conditions compared to the person conditions (F[1, 94] = 0.20, p = .66, partial η2 = .002; F[1, 94] = 2.15, p = .15, partial η2 = .02).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Manipulation checks
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and non-fluencies (F[1, 94] = 9.41, p < .003, partial η2 = .09)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Manipulation checks
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effects of emotional disclosure were equivalent whether participants thought they were disclosing to a chatbot or to a person.”
- Also stated in: § Overview · plain
“Participants who disclosed to chatbots experienced as many emotional, relational, and psychological benefits as participants who disclosed to a human partner.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Overview · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Consistent with previous research, effects were stronger for emotional disclosure versus factual disclosure.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Overview
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When talking to a perceived chatbot as opposed to a person, participants used fewer conjugations (F[1, 94] = 8.30, p < .005, partial η2 = .08)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Manipulation checks
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Talking with a chatbot instead of a human also did not change whether participants were defensive towards threatening information.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across the entire sample, the processes (perceived understanding, disclosure intimacy, and cognitive reappraisal) were significantly associated with the outcome index.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as was understanding (r = .22, p < .03).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and that they enjoyed the interaction more (F[1, 94] = 5.49, p < .02, partial η2 = .05) compared to a factual conversation.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 18
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“According to the theoretical model of perceived understanding (Reis, Lemay, & Finkenauer, 2017), feeling truly understood, or that the partner “‘gets’ [disclosers] in some fundamental way,” brings emotional, relational, and psychological benefits.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Perceived understanding framework
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Reis, Lemay, & Finkenauer, 2017 source
The Introduction (section 1; page not provided) defines feeling understood as believing another person “gets them” in a fundamental way. The Benefits section (section 7) describes relationship, mood, and personal well-being benefits, and the Conclusion (section 8) says people and their relationships generally benefit when they feel understood. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there were no significant interactions or other main effects for perceived partner on any other measure in the study.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Manipulation checks
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the emotional conditions, participants felt that they revealed their emotions more and shared information that was more personal, as compared to participants in the factual conditions (F[1, 94] = 133.84, p < .001).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Manipulation checks
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“participants disclosed more intimately (F[1, 94] = 286.25, p < .001, partial η2 = .90)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with no significant effects of perceived partner and no significant interactions.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, the processes of perceived understanding, disclosure intimacy, and cognitive reappraisal all correlated as expected with outcomes and, importantly, showed the same pattern across the chatbot and person partners, supporting the Equivalence Hypothesis.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Overview
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, our participants were not asked to disclose anything particularly embarrassing or stigmatizing, and often chose to discuss matters that they had also disclosed to others.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Disclosure dynamics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“used more words reflecting cognitive reappraisal (positive emotion words: F[1, 94] = 56.92, p < .00001, partial η2 = .38; causal words: F[1, 94] = 29.79, p < .00001, partial η2 = .24; insight words: F[1, 94] = 147.89, p < .00001) after emotional disclosure compared to factual disclosure, with no effect of perceived partner and no interaction.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants reported a higher negative mood (F[1, 94] = 9.61, p < .001, partial η2 = .09)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whether talking to a person or to a chatbot, participants in the emotional conditions were less defensive towards changing their behavior after reading threatening health information (F[1,94] = 8.63, p < .004, partial η2 = .08)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants felt more understood after emotional disclosure compared to factual disclosure (F[1, 94] = 8.94, p < .004, partial η2 = .09), but there was no significant effect of partner, nor a significant interaction.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The correlation between understanding and outcomes was .21 for chatbot partners and .27 for human partners, which were not significantly different from each other (zr1−r2 = .299, p = .76).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, the correlation between disclosure intimacy and outcomes was .45 for chatbot partners and .47 for human partners, which did not significantly differ (zr1−r2 = .12, p = .90).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the correlation between cognitive reappraisal and outcomes was .37 for chatbot partners and .38 for human partners, which also were not significantly different (zr1−r2 = .08, p = .93).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also found that the processes involved in producing these outcomes (perceived understanding, disclosure intimacy, and cognitive reappraisal) were equivalent in strength and affected outcomes similarly, regardless of the perceived partner.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with previous research, effects were stronger after emotional disclosure compared to factual disclosure, and we found that this occurred regardless of the partner’s perceived identity (see Table 2).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both human and chatbot partners, perceptions of relationship quality after emotional disclosure were higher compared to factual disclosures, with no effects of perceived partner or any interactions (see Figure 1).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern of significant effect of type of disclosure, but no effect of partner, occurred across all three types of outcome measures (emotional, relational, psychological) as well as our three process measures (perceived understanding, disclosure intimacy, cognitive reappraisal).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Overview
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, disclosure can impact the immediate emotional experience of a discloser by reducing stress arising from negative experiences (Martins et al., 2013)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Martins et al., 2013 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to Pennebaker’s (1993) cognitive processing model, a key component of the link between cognitive changes and beneficial outcomes is the process by which disclosing what was formerly undisclosed eliminates negative affect and processing and induces reappraisal.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Disclosure processing framework
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pennebaker, 1993 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants then engaged in an online chat conversation for 25 minutes with a trained confederate, who was blind to whether participants thought they were talking to a chatbot or to a person, but not to whether participants were asked to engage in emotional or factual disclosure.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Methods > Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Disclosing personal information to another person has beneficial emotional, relational, and psychological outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Self-disclosure, or revealing personal information to someone else (Archer, 1980), generates a wide variety of beneficial outcomes.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Archer, 1980
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“This level of suspicion was lower or on par with other studies employing WoZ methods (e.g., Aharoni & Fridlund, 2007; Hinds, Roberts, & Jones, 2004)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Methods > Participants
What the sources say
plainn = 13- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants then engaged in an online chat conversation for 25 minutes with a trained confederate, who was blind to whether participants thought they were talking to a chatbot or to a person, but not to whether participants were asked to engage in emotional or factual disclosure.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Methods > Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Forming a narrative of the situation facilitates new insights and eliminates rumination over what was previously confusing or bothersome (Lepore, Ragan, & Jones, 2000; Pennebaker & Chung, 2007).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Disclosure processing framework
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lepore, Ragan, & Jones, 2000 source
- Not matchedcites Pennebaker & Chung, 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to this model, the positive effects of feeling understood are mediated by the extent to which disclosers perceive that they are understood.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Perceived understanding framework
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Reis et al., 2017 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“According to this framework, people instinctively perceive, react to, and interact with computers as they do with other people, without consciously intending to do so (Reeves & Nass, 1996).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > CASA framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Reeves & Nass, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“diminishing anxiety (Tam et al., 2006)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tam et al., 2006 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Participants were also randomly assigned to engage in an emotional conversation, in which they were asked to discuss a current problem they were facing and their deepest feelings about it, or a factual conversation, in which they were asked to describe their schedule for the day and the upcoming week in an objective way, without mentioning their feelings or emotions (Birnbaum et al., 2016; Gortner”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Methods > Procedure
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Computerized agents reduce impression management and increase disclosure intimacy compared to human partners in situations in which fears of negative evaluation may be prominent (e.g., when asked potentially embarrassing questions; Kang & Gratch, 2010; Lucas et al., 2014).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Disclosure processing framework
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The WoZ procedure was used rather than employing a real chatbot because of current chatbots’ conversational limitations, and because perceptions of the partner’s identity can impact subsequent effects, while actual identity does not (Lucas et al., 2014).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > The present study
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lucas et al., 2014 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“which ultimately results in long-term psychological improvement (Kelley, Lumley, & Leisen, 1997)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kelley, Lumley, & Leisen, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“On the other hand, people assume that chatbots are worse at emotional tasks than humans (Madhavan, Wiegmann, & Lacson, 2006)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Madhavan, Wiegmann, & Lacson, 2006 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were randomly assigned to be told they would have a conversation with either another person or a chatbot.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Methods > Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The beneficial nature of self-disclosure is amplified when the listener responds with support and validation, rather than ignoring or blaming the discloser (Shenk & Fruzzetti, 2011).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shenk & Fruzzetti, 2011 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“increasing negative affect in the short term (Greenberg & Stone, 1992)”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Greenberg & Stone, 1992 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, participants’ perceptions of chatbot competence were not measured before the conversation.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our study takes this work a step further by finding that not only are perceptions similar, but disclosure to bots and humans exert similar beneficial outcomes.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Theoretical implications
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Emotional disclosure was more beneficial than factual disclosure because of enhanced perceived understanding, disclosure intimacy, and cognitive reappraisal, with no difference depending on whether the partner was perceived to be a chatbot or a person.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The associations between processes and outcomes reflect causal effects of processes on outcomes.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, our study did not include reciprocal disclosure, which may explain why we did not find significant effects in terms of liking of the partner.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Limitations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Perceived Understanding Hypothesis and the Disclosure Processing Hypothesis received partial support, in that our data replicated previous research on these mechanisms, but no support for their predictions on how these mechanisms would be either undermined or enhanced by disclosure to a chatbot partner.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Theoretical implications
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“These findings expand on the work of communication scholars who have either focused on resulting perceptions but not beneficial outcomes of disclosure (Birnbaum et al., 2016; Gong & Nass, 2007) or on beneficial outcomes when the listener is always human, but not when the listener is a computer (Jones & Wirtz, 2006).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Theoretical implications
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and thus felt greater self-affirmation, than participants in the factual conditions, with no effect of perceived partner or interaction (see Figure 1).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Outcomes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the processes were associated with the outcomes to the same strength for human partners as they were for chatbot partners, providing additional support for the Equivalence Hypothesis.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The absence of significant effects of partner indicates equivalence between chatbot and human partners.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may be why intimacy of disclosure to bots compared to humans was equivalent, suggesting that people only disclose more intimately to a computer compared to a person when fears of being judged are heightened.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Disclosure dynamics
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In other recent research, however, participants disclosed more intimately to a perceived computer than to a perceived person (Gratch, Lucas, King, & Morency, 2014; Kang & Gratch, 2010; Lucas et al., 2014).”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion > Disclosure dynamics
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Outcomes of disclosure were similar whether the partner was perceived to be a chatbot or a person, supporting the Equivalence Hypothesis.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Results > Processes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The absence of significant effects of partner indicates equivalence between chatbot and human partners.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While we had sufficient power to detect main effects of the disclosure manipulation”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This provides support for the CASA framework and its Equivalence Hypothesis, that people psychologically engage with chatbots as they do with people, resulting in similar disclosure processes and outcomes.”
§ Psychological, Relational, and Emotional Effects of Self-Disclosure After Conversations With a Chatbot > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The absence of significant effects of partner indicates equivalence between chatbot and human partners.
The paper relies on this without support.
A chatbot cannot understand a discloser on a deeper level.
“In the case of a chatbot, disclosers know that a chatbot is a computer program that cannot understand them on this deeper level.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Another person has the capability of truly understanding a discloser in a way a chatbot cannot.
“On the other hand, individuals know that another person has the capability of truly understanding them in a way a chatbot cannot, especially who they are and how they experience the world.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Current chatbots have conversational limitations.
“The WoZ procedure was used rather than employing a real chatbot because of current chatbots’ conversational limitations”
The paper relies on this without support.
This is the first study to compare the downstream effects of disclosing to a chatbot partner with disclosing to a human partner.
“This is the first study to compare the downstream effects of disclosing to a chatbot partner with disclosing to a human partner.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To our knowledge, this is the first study to find that more wide-ranging downstream effects, such as those relating to immediate emotional experience or self-affirmation, are similar whether the partner is a computer or a person.
“To our knowledge, this is the first study to find that more wide-ranging downstream effects, such as those relating to immediate emotional experience or self-affirmation, are similar whether the partner is a computer or a person.”
The paper relies on this without support.
This is the first study to examine the psychological impact of disclosing to a partner with a computer identity, such as a chatbot, compared to another person.
“This is the first study to examine the psychological impact of disclosing to a partner with a computer identity, such as a chatbot, compared to another person.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The absence of significant effects of partner indicates equivalence between chatbot and human partners.
“This provides support for the CASA framework and its Equivalence Hypothesis, that people psychologically engage with chatbots as they do with people, resulting in similar disclosure processes and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The associations between processes and outcomes reflect causal effects of processes on outcomes.
“Emotional disclosure was more beneficial than factual disclosure because of enhanced perceived understanding, disclosure intimacy, and cognitive reappraisal, with no difference depending on whether the partner was perceived to be a chatbot or a person.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Simply disclosing concerns and receiving emotionally supportive responses can have positive value in some contexts25.”
From Chatbots in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“In a study in which students believed they were speaking with a conversational AI, the students reported feeling better after talking about their problems following the encounter (43).”
From Key Considerations for Incorporating Conversational AI in Psychotherapy (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“However, contrary findings have also been identified as some studies show evidence that people respond well and disclose more personal information if the chatbot is presented as a bot and can also display emotions [60,61].”
Citations
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“This e ff ect size is r = .35 (Smyth, 1998).”
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Cited by
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Items 301–400 of 630
Evaluating the Contribution of New Factors in the Assessment of eHealth Therapeutic Alliance
Ashur, O., Muench, F. J., & Baumel, A. (2023) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-023-00336-z · Cited by 8
“Studies have also shown that users disclose emotions and facts to artificial chat-bots similar to human partners and experience emotional comfort from both (Ho et al., 2018).”
Feng, Y., Lu, X., & Zhang, X. (2021) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2023/17481 · Cited by 10
“Ho et al. (2018) 92 participants had an online conversation by Chatplat in an experiment (emotional vs. factual disclosure; with a chatbot vs. a person) The disclosure type (emotional vs. factual) was manipulated in the experiment.”
InfluentialNguyen, H., Lopez, J., Homer, B. D., Ali, A., & Ahn, J. (2023) · Information and Learning Sciences · doi:10.1108/ils-10-2022-0116 · Cited by 13
Coping with Emotional Distress via Self-Disclosure to Robots: Intervention with CaregiversPreprint
Laban, G., Morrison, V. L., Kappas, A., & Cross, E. S. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gbk2j · Cited by 8
The underlying mechanism of user response to AI assistants: from interactivity to loyalty
Ko, M., Lee, L., & Kim, Y. Y. (2024) · Information Technology and People · doi:10.1108/itp-01-2023-0065 · Cited by 8
The FHJ debate: Will artificial intelligence replace clinical decision making within our lifetimes?
Hatherley, J. J., Kinderlerer, A. R., Bjerring, J. C., Munch, L. A., & Threlfall, L. (2024) · Future Healthcare Journal · doi:10.1016/j.fhj.2024.100178 · Cited by 8
“26 , 27 Patients have also been found to interpret text that is generated by large language models as more empathetic and caring than text written by human clinicians.”
BackgroundWill Virtual Companionship Enhance Subjective Well-Being — A Comparison of Cross-Cultural Context
Xie, Z., Hui, H., & Wang, L. (2024) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-024-01180-8 · Cited by 7
“Ho et al. [21] demonstrated that the communication between chatbots and users could elicit emotional responses akin to interper - sonal communication, with participants expressing a similar degree of closeness to chatbots as to real people.”
What Drives Patient Preferences for AI Chatbots Over Doctors? A Survey Study Using the O-S-O-R Model
Liu, Z., Zou, W., & Yang, S. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2537814 · Cited by 10
“This dynamic often results in the revelation of more private, personal details (Ho et al., 2018).”
Understanding Attachment to Social Chatbots: The Roles of Loneliness, Self‐Disclosure, and Empathy
Yao, R., & Nan, Y. (2025) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.70077 · Cited by 9
Human-AI Interactions in Teacher Education: Examining Social Presence and Friendship
Huang, H.-W., & Chang, J. C. (2024) · Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Teacher Education · doi:10.1145/3702386.3702399 · Cited by 10
“The availability of social chatbots may signify the growing importance of immediate feedback and emotional support without the limitations of time or physical proximity, suggesting a new avenue for building human-AI friendships (Araujo, 2018 [9]; Ho et al., 2018 [10]).”
Hsu, C.-W., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2021) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.1966099 · Cited by 7
“The dual impact of an avatar’s realism and agency on the disclosure of embarrassing information is another fruitful avenue for future research (Ho, Hancock, and Miner 2018; Lucas et al. 2014) In sum, the present study highlights the fact that for discussing embarrassing topics, people may still…”
BackgroundRaji, V. P. H., & Maheswari, P. U. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2022.011865 · Cited by 8
Park, H., Forlizzi, J., & Lee, J. (2022) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3532106.3533509 · Cited by 8
Approachability and Credibility of Virtual Character Faces: The Role of the Horizontal Viewing Angle
So, C., & Jung, K. (2023) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/00187208231153492 · Cited by 7
“In contrast, in a social interaction mode, the goal of a virtual agent is to build rapport with the human, for example during socializing (Kr¨amer et al., 2018) or disclosing personal problems (Felnhofer et al., 2019; Ho et al., 2018; Kang & Gratch, 2010; Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-Disclosure and Respect: Understanding the Engagement of Value Minorities
Dumas, T. L., Doyle, S., & Lount, R. B. (2023) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.15768 · Cited by 6
Genç, H. U., Chandrasegaran, S. K., Dingler, T., & Verma, H. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713579 · Cited by 7
“Studies show that users prefer chatbots that present themselves transparently, avoiding overly anthropomorphic characteristics, which might elicit discomfort and reduce trust [59, 85].”
Kuhail, M. A., Mrabet, J., Hijazi, R., & Thomas, J. (2025) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/hbe2/8825536 · Cited by 6
Jang, J.-W., Yang, S., & Kim, H. (2025) · Energy & Environment · doi:10.1177/0958305x251343056 · Cited by 7
“29,36,46,47 Ho et al. 48 found that users experienced equivalent levels of intimacy when disclosing information about themselves to a chatbot or to another person, suggesting that social penetration through conversation occurs in human-to-chatbot interactions.”
Navigating the human-AI divide: Boundary work in the age of generative AI
Kim, Y. J., Zhang, X., & Fang, C. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2025.100214 · Cited by 7
AI or human? Exploring the effects of user awareness in conversational dynamics with virtual avatars
Kober, S. E., Streit, S., & Wood, G. M. D. O. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2026.108984 · Cited by 8
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Human Motivation in Competition against Artificial Intelligence: Using One-to-One Games
Yokoi, R., & Nakayachi, K. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2316374 · Cited by 6
“Many studies support this theory (Cameron et al., 2021; Ho et al., 2018; Nass & Moon, 2000; Posard & Rinderknecht, 2015; Suzuki et al., 2015).”
Maldonato, N. M., Chiodi, A., Bottone, M., Scandurra, C., de Lucia, S., Duval, M., Lipardi, A., Continisio, G. I., Luccarelli, V., & Muzii, B. (2020) · IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications · doi:10.1109/coginfocom50765.2020.9237827 · Cited by 6
Araujo, T. (2019) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/9ukyf · Cited by 6
“This method has been used in earlier studies (e.g., (Ho et al., 2018) and is often an alternative to either overcome the limitations of current technology, or because the infrastructure and knowledge required to deploy an actual conversational agent enabled by computational methods is not readily…”
Chatbots and Health: Mental Health
Cheng, Y., Xie, C., Wang, Y., & Jiang, H. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119678816.iehc0725 · Cited by 7
Kim, J., Jin, X., Xu, K., Chen, X., & Yang, H. (2024) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1080/03623319.2024.2421610 · Cited by 6
“chatbots’ capability of providing emotional, relational, and psychological benefits for users (Ho et al., 2018) and Replika’s orientation to provide supportive feedback and comments (Metz, 2020), a good deal of research has examined it within the relationship framework.”
Does Fun Matter? Using Chatbots for Customer Services
Wut, T. M., Chan, E. A.-H., & Wong, H. S.-M. (2024) · Informatics · doi:10.3390/informatics11040094 · Cited by 8
“Reference [33] also suggested that individuals perceive that chatbots do not truly understanding the feelings of users like humans; therefore, it is important to have emotional interaction with chatbots.”
Zhou, J., Shen, R., You, Y., DiSalvo, C. F., Dombrowski, L. S., & MacLellan, C. J. (2025) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3715336.3735831 · Cited by 5
“Chatbot design considerations primarily fit into two categories [51]: task performance, such as productivity and efficiency [9, 33, 49, 50, 90], and social concerns, such as personality and proactivity [31, 36].”
Seaborn, K., Altmeyer, M., Li, G., Ku, B., Kobuki, S., & Urakami, J. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2025.103576 · Cited by 7
Zheng, Q., Zhan, E. S., Dong, C., Thorson, E., & Hu, J. M. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2537789 · Cited by 6
“Prior research that seeks to understand people ’ s interaction with supportive chatbots indicates that people may process supportive communication similarly, regardless of whether the service provider is a human or a computer (Ho et al., 2018; Rains et al., 2020).”
Jeon, Y. A., Ryoo, Y., Lee, S., & Yoon, H. J. (2025) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.1080/00218499.2025.2537503 · Cited by 5
A counselor-inspired agent framework for AI counselors to enhance client engagement
Tang, Y., Kang, Y., Wang, Y., Wang, T. Y., Zhong, C., & Gong, J. (2025) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103045 · Cited by 9
Pawar, B., Mahajan, S. R., & Kolhar, S. (2025) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-025-00513-6 · Cited by 6
“…user engagement, scalability, and ethical safeguards, and we proposed next-generation categories of systems in this context that enhance the evidence base for CBT delivery across adaptive AI agents and ultimately provide moderated therapeutic value that establishes sustained user trust[32, 33].”
Guo, H., Zhu, Q., Zhong, Y., & Huang, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749281 · Cited by 6
Social support of virtual characters reduces pain perception
Neumann, I., Andreatta, M., Pauli, P., & Käthner, I. (2023) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1002/ejp.2220 · Cited by 5
“For instance, that agents could lead to the same benefits of disclosure as humans (Ho et al., 2018) and to bonds comparable to therapeutic settings with humans (Beatty et al., 2022; Darcy et al., 2021).”
BackgroundWhat Makes People Say Thanks to AI
Yuan, Y., Su, M., & Li, X. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60606-9_9 · Cited by 5
Phoenix: A Conversational Agent for Emotional Well-Being and Psychological Support
Benita, J., Jaswanth, S., Bhuvaneshwar, N., Yuvaraj, R., & Narayana, Y. L. (2025) · International Conference on Multi-Agent Systems for Collaborative Intelligence (ICMSCI) · doi:10.1109/icmsci62561.2025.10894579 · Cited by 5
Construction and effect of relationships with agents in a virtual reality environment
Abril, T., Oliveira, J., & Gamito, P. S. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00669-9 · Cited by 5
“This effect dismisses the differences between avatar and NPC, as demonstrated in the study of Ho et al., 2018, in which no differences were found at the relational level and emotional openness toward avatars and NPCs.”
BackgroundResultHardi, R., Pee, A. N. C., & Abdullah, M. H. L. (2022) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0106784 · Cited by 5
Beatrice: A Chatbot for Collecting Psychoecological Data and Providing QA Capabilities
Ni, Y., Chen, Y., Ding, R., & Ni, S. (2023) · International Conference on PErvasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments (PETRA) · doi:10.1145/3594806.3596580 · Cited by 7
“Moreover, conversational agents facilitate the collection of qualitative data within quantitative methods, addressing challenges such as low response rates, standardizing interview procedures, reducing experimenter effects, minimizing socially acceptable biases, and enabling individuals to share personal experiences[8…”
BackgroundBendotti, H., Lawler, S., GARTNER, C. E., Ireland, D., & Marshall, H. (2023) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981231206068 · Cited by 5
“…their efficacy for smoking cessation is limited, previous research has found an overall high level of acceptability of conversational agents for smoking cessation (He et al., 2023) and that people interact with and disclose information to chatbots in similar ways they do humans (Ho et al., 2018).”
BackgroundGao, L. (2020) · Accounting and the Public Interest · doi:10.2308/api-2020-001 · Cited by 5
Hallqvist, J. (2021) · Medical Humanities · doi:10.1136/medhum-2020-011975 · Cited by 5
“Ho, Hancock, and Miner (2018) discuss how the mechanisms in forming friendships with a communicative artificial intelligence agent have several similarities with humans feeling attached to and trusting their human friends.”
BackgroundNeef, C., Mai, V., & Richert, A. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05412-9_35 · Cited by 5
Assessing the impact of using chatbot technology on the passenger experience at EgyptAir
Rady, H. A. (2023) · Minia Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research · doi:10.21608/mjthr.2023.247963.1125 · Cited by 5
“Chatbots, as described by Ho et al. (2018), are computer programs that replicate human-to-human discussion.”
BackgroundHeinonen, K., Kietzmann, J., & PITT, L. F. (2020) · Journal of service management · doi:10.1108/josm-03-2020-417 · Cited by 5
Self-Disclosure in Digital Healthcare: Enhancing User Engagement
Goh, M., Jeong, H., Yoo, J. H., & Han, O. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Agents (ICA) · doi:10.1109/ica58824.2023.00020 · Cited by 4
“In traditional communication settings, self-disclosure is known to have beneficial impacts in psychological, relational, and emotional aspects [10].”
BackgroundShifting from social media to AI Chatbots: Saying goodbye to digital mental harms?
Fattouh, D. (2025) · Strategic Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.sbr.2025.100011 · Cited by 5
Yoon, S., & Kang, Y. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2026.103738 · Cited by 4
Bartikowski, B. (2026) · Journal of Strategic Marketing · doi:10.1080/0965254x.2026.2618080 · Cited by 4
Spangenberger, P., Reuth, G. F., Krüger, J. M., Baumann, L., & Nebel, S. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-39317-6 · Cited by 5
“A study by Ho, Hancock, and Miner 20 on psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot or a person yielded a medium to large effect on immediate emotional experiences (partial η² of 0.09 for mood, partial η² of 0.12 for feeling better).”
InfluentialIsaiah, U. S., Naibo, A. T., Ugondo, M. T., Ogwuche, S., Iziengbuwa, S. J., Abiama, E. E., & Ineme, M. E. (2026) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-026-00387-7 · Cited by 6
“Studies have shown that individuals can form meaningful relationships with AI systems, per-ceiving them as supportive social partners that reduce loneliness and distress [4, 19, 26].”
Can humans feel connected to AI? Perceived responsiveness drives social connection with AI chatbots
Telari, A., Gabbiadini, A., & Riva, P. (2026) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075261438164 · Cited by 8
“Once con fi ned to narrow domains such as customer service, these agents are now used for companionship, emotional support, and mental health interventions, due to their capacity to simulate human-like dialogue (Ho et al., 2018; Ta et al., 2020).”
Experience of Using a Virtual Life Coach: A Case Study of Novice Users
Mason-Robbie, V. (2021) · Postdigital science and education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-65592-1_3 · Cited by 4
Martens, M., Abeele, M. V., & Wolf, R. P. D. (2025) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.13162 · Cited by 4
Abe, K., Quan, C., Cao, S., & Luo, Z. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15073466 · Cited by 4
Self-disclosure and relational agents for mental health: a scoping review protocol
Sha, S., Loveys, K., Francis, I., Ji, E., Lyu, L., Krpan, D., Galizzi, M. M., & Taylor, M. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-100613 · Cited by 4
“Measures of these outcomes will vary, for example, while some researchers used standardised scales to report self-disclosure, Ho et al 32 developed their own classification system.”
The Identity Disclosure Matrix: A Conceptual Framework for Why and How We Share Our Identities
King, A. M., Davis, C. J., Darby, C., Proudfoot, D., & Burrow, A. L. (2024) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2024.2361896 · Cited by 4
“…past 15 years has grown to address a broader range of intimacy and proximity among parties through the exploration of computer-mediated self-disclosures and accompanying discussions of concealment and privacy (e.g., Bazarova & Choi, 2014; Ho et al., 2018; John et al., 2020; Luo & Hancock, 2020).”
HelpBot: A Web-Based Chatbot to Handle Depression Among Adolescents
Jusoh, S., Alfawareh, H. M., Kadir, R. A., & Hosseinzadeh, H. (2024) · International Conference on Computing and Artificial Intelligence (ICCAI) · doi:10.1145/3669754.3669777 · Cited by 4
“According to Ho and co-researchers [11], who concentrated on the effects of personal disclosure, chatbot interactions were found to be just as beneficial for emotional, relational, and psychological well-being as human interactions.”
Chen, Y., Tu, Y., & Zeng, S. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16188236 · Cited by 3
A Review Paper of Consumer Behaviour on Chatbot Adoption
Ambawat, M., & Wadera, D. (2020) · BULMIM Journal of Management and Research · doi:10.5958/2455-3298.2020.00005.7 · Cited by 4
Effectiveness of Entrepreneurship Development Training Programmes on Business Growth of SMEs
Gunawardana, T. S. L. W., & Bandara, D. (2021) · Asian Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.4038/ajms.v1i2.36 · Cited by 4
“These include entrepreneurship intentions (Adjimah & Perry, 2014), entrepreneurial skillset and mindset efficacy (Park & Choi, 2018), productivity (Ho et al., 2018), business knowledge and practices (Ismail, 2018), and business performance (micro-finance, grants) programme elements (Khalili et al.”
BackgroundOrden-Mejía, M. A., & Huertas, A. (2022) · Cuadernos de Turismo · doi:10.6018/turismo.541891 · Cited by 5
Multiclass Intent Classification for Chatbot Based on Machine Learning Algorithm
Hamzah, W. M. A. F. W., Yusof, M. K., Ismail, I., Makhtar, M., Nawang, H., & Aziz, A. A. (2022) · International Conference on Informatics and Computing (ICIC) · doi:10.1109/icic56845.2022.10006979 · Cited by 4
“Today's advancement in digital technology presents a wide use of Chatbots over time [1][2].”
BackgroundMethodBendotti, H., Lawler, S., Ireland, D., GARTNER, C. E., & Marshall, H. (2024) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/56505 · Cited by 4
“Previous research has found people disclose information to and interact with chatbots similarly to how they would a human [32], and in the context of smoking cessation, that chatbot support was superior to that of family and friends [19].”
BackgroundZarouali, B., Makhortykh, M., Bastian, M., & Araujo, T. (2020) · doi:10.25384/sage.c.5067083.v1 · Cited by 4
Serra, C. M. (2021) · Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research · doi:10.26717/bjstr.2021.33.005474 · Cited by 4
“When the interlocutor believes they are interacting with a computer rather than another person, such as a chatbot that can simulate a person-to-person conversation, emotional disclosures have been shown to be equivalent in conversations with a chatbot or a person [14].”
BackgroundLaban, G. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fhdek · Cited by 7
He, Y., Yang, L., Zhu, X., Wu, B., Zhang, S., Qian, C., & Tian, T. (2022) · doi:10.2196/preprints.40719 · Cited by 3
Ollier, J., Nißen, M., & von Wangenheim, F. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108768 · Cited by 3
My AI is not My (Virtual) Friend
Krämer, N. C., Kühn, T., & Horstmann, A. C. (2025) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVA) · doi:10.1145/3717511.3747077 · Cited by 5
“Social chatbots can be described as AI dialogue systems capable of having social and empa-thetic conversation with users [12, 36] what makes them suitable as friends or in some cases even romantic partners [26, 28, 35].”
Chang, W.-L., Cai, X., & Zhao, X. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22101540 · Cited by 4
“In yet other studies, the same messages, regardless of actual source, are labeled as either AI-or human-generated to investigate people’s potential bias (either positive or negative) toward different sources [27].”
Skidmore, S. J., & Lefevor, G. T. (2025) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1080/10508619.2025.2575225 · Cited by 2
“SGMs who come out report greater feelings of connection to others, thus enhancing their sense of meaningful relationships (Ho et al., 2018).”
Mok, C. H. Y., Cheng, C. P. W., & Chu, M. H. W. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1692177 · Cited by 3
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“…on the ‘computers are social actors’ (CASA) paradigm, where users automatically anthropo-morphise computerised agents and perceive them not just as machines but as social entities with whom they engage accordingly (Ho, Hancock, and Miner 2018; Nass and Moon 2000; Pentina, Hancock, and Xie 2023).”
Malik, G., Singh, D., & Jha, A. (2026) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology · doi:10.1108/jhtt-03-2025-0206 · Cited by 3
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İletişim Çalışmalarında İnsan-Makine İletişimi: Paradigma Değişikliği ve Temel Yaklaşımlar
NARİN, B. (2021) · Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.31123/akil.988494 · Cited by 3
Exploring the Practitioner Perspective of ChatGPT in Academic Research: A Quantitative Analysis
Ara, A., & Thomas, A. (2024) · International Women in Data Science Conference at Prince Sultan University (WiDS PSU) · doi:10.1109/wids-psu61003.2024.00018 · Cited by 4
Understanding How Coming Out Goes Well for Sexual and Gender Minorities
Skidmore, S. J., & Lefevor, G. T. (2024) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2024.2420072 · Cited by 3
“In terms of relationships, SGMs who come out note that they feel closer to those around them, and that these connections feel deeper and more meaningful (Ho et al., 2018; Skidmore et al., 2022).”
Yiyecek İçecek Sektöründe Teknoloji Tabanlı Yenilikçi Uygulamalar
Akgül, V. (2024) · Özgür Yayınları eBooks · doi:10.58830/ozgur.pub587.c2436 · Cited by 2
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AI and the Rule of Law in Urban Security
Mansoor, S. I. U. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0245-4.ch003 · Cited by 4
Factors shaping job candidates’ responses to asynchronous video interviews
Deriu, V., Pozharliev, R., Angelis, M. D., Ghaffari, M., & Mazzù, M. F. (2025) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2025.2547598 · Cited by 4
“Some studies have demonstrated that people were more willing to self-disclose when interacting with a machine (compared to a human) (e.g., Pickard et al., 2020); others found no differences in the extent of disclosure (Ho et al., 2018).”
Torturing the algorithm: Everyday sadism predicts acceptance of anthropomorphic AI
Li, H., & Cao, Y. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113448 · Cited by 3
Zou, S., Xu, Z., & Han, X. (2023) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/202316803020 · Cited by 3
Affective Idiosyncratic Responses to Music
CH-Wang, S., Li, E., Li, O., Muresan, S., & Zhou, Y. (2022) · Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2022.emnlp-main.80 · Cited by 3
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Technological Readiness as Mediator to Adoption of E-Governemnt Services in Zanzibar SMEs
Makame, M. A., Kuppusamy, M., & Sannasai, A. (2023) · Journal of Computer and Communications · doi:10.4236/jcc.2023.1111002 · Cited by 3
A Symphony of Insights: Orchestrating Business and Education Research With Google Bard
Arabiat, O. S. (2024) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83753-106-620241007 · Cited by 3
Linguistic patterning of laughter in human-socialbot interactions
Booker, N. P., Cohn, M., & Zellou, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2024.1346738 · Cited by 4
Huang-Isherwood, K. M., Cho, J., Hong, J.-W., & Lee, E. (2024) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393241252027 · Cited by 3
“The fi ndings also offer insight into the Computers Are Social Actors (CASA) paradigm, which is a key theory in human-computer interactions (Ho et al., 2018; Kim & Lee, 2023; Xu et al., 2022).”
Influential王, 袁., 朱, 孟., & 陈, 思. (2023) · Global Journal of Media Studies · doi:10.26599/gjms.2023.9330056 · Cited by 3
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Natural Language Stage of Change Modelling for “Motivationally-driven” Weight Loss Support
Meyer, S. (2021) · INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MULTIMODAL INTERACTION · doi:10.1145/3462244.3481279 · Cited by 4
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How Differing Audiences Were Associated with User Emotional Expression on a Well-Being App
Topitzer, M., Kou, Y., Kasumba, R., & Kreniske, P. (2022) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/2022/4453980 · Cited by 3
“Selfdisclosure to a chatbot may have many of the same positive psychological outcomes as self-disclosure to a person [13], and people appear to interact with bots in much the same way that they interact with other humans [9].”
BackgroundWhat Will Affect the Diffusion of AI Agents?
Dearing, J. W. (2021) · Human-Machine Communication · doi:10.30658/hmc.3.6 · Cited by 3
“Chatbots may be as effective as people at providing emotional, relational, and psychological benefits for users (Ho et al., 2018).”
BackgroundChatbots for Coronavirus: Detecting COVID-19 Symptoms with Virtual Assessment Tool
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Empathy, Thick and ThinPreprint
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Metadata
- Authors
- Ho, A., Hancock, J., & Miner, A. S.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Department of Communication, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ho, Annabell
- Venue
- Journal of Communication
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2018-05-30
- Volume
- 68
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 712-733
- ISSN
- 0021-9916 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2466
- PMC
- PMC6074615
- OpenAlex
- W2806569034
- Cited by
- 629
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 153 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 103 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 4
- FWCI
- 39.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Communication (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- National Center for Advancing Translational Science (KL2TR001083, UL1TR001085)
- Clinical and Translational Science (KL2TR001083, UL1TR001085)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › AI in Service Interactions
- Keywords
- self-disclosure, chatbots, human-computer interaction, emotional disclosure, interpersonal relationships
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