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The EAGLE project: simulating the evolution and assembly of galaxies and their environments
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We introduce the Virgo Consortium's Evolution and Assembly of GaLaxies and their Environments (EAGLE) project, a suite of hydrodynamical simulations that follow the formation of galaxies and supermassive black holes in cosmologically representative volumes of a standard Λ cold dark matter universe. We discuss the limitations of such simulations in light of their finite resolution and poorly constrained subgrid physics, and how these affect their predictive power. One major improvement is our treatment of feedback from massive stars and active galactic nuclei (AGN) in which thermal energy is injected into the gas without the need to turn off cooling or decouple hydrodynamical forces, allowing winds to develop without predetermined speed or mass loading factors. Because the feedback efficiencies cannot be predicted from first principles, we calibrate them to the present-day galaxy stellar mass function and the amplitude of the galaxy-central black hole mass relation, also taking galaxy sizes into account. The observed galaxy stellar mass function is reproduced to ≲ 0.2 dex over the full resolved mass range, 108 < M*/M⊙ ≲ 1011, a level of agreement close to that attained by semi-analytic models, and unprecedented for hydrodynamical simulations. We compare our results to a representative set of low-redshift observables not considered in the calibration, and find good agreement with the observed galaxy specific star formation rates, passive fractions, Tully–Fisher relation, total stellar luminosities of galaxy clusters, and column density distributions of intergalactic C iv and O vi. While the mass–metallicity relations for gas and stars are consistent with observations for M* ≳ 109 M⊙ (M* ≳ 1010 M⊙ at intermediate resolution), they are insufficiently steep at lower masses. For the reference model, the gas fractions and temperatures are too high for clusters of galaxies, but for galaxy groups these discrepancies can be resolved by adopting a higher heating temperature in the subgrid prescription for AGN feedback. The EAGLE simulation suite, which also includes physics variations and higher resolution zoomed-in volumes described elsewhere, constitutes a valuable new resource for studies of galaxy formation.
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“The largest EAGLE cosmological simulation (Schaye et al. 2015), for example, contains 100 objects that are close analogs to the Milky Way in terms of stellar and dark mass, SFR, and bulge-to-disk ratio, of which a handful have dynamically similar stellar halos (see Bignone et al. 2019).”
From Streams, Substructures, and the Early History of the Milky Way (2020) · cites this paper as Schaye et al. 2015
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EFFICIENT THREE-DIMENSIONAL NLTE DUST RADIATIVE TRANSFER WITH SKIRT
Baes, M., Verstappen, J., Looze, I. D., Fritz, J., Saftly, W., Pérez, E. V., Stalevski, M., & Valcke, S. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/196/2/22 · Cited by 311
Self-citationBernardi, M., Meert, A., Sheth, R. K., Vikram, V., Mei, S., & Shankar, F. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1607 · Cited by 306
Toy models for galaxy formation versus simulations
Dekel, A., Zolotov, A., Tweed, D., Cacciato, M., Ceverino, D., & Primack, J. R. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1338 · Cited by 304
Selection Bias in Observing the Cosmological Evolution of the M • ‐σ and M • ‐ L Relationships
Lauer, T. R., Tremaine, S. D., Richstone, D. O., et al. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/522083 · Cited by 304
Gravitational collapse of small-scale structure as the origin of the Lyman alpha forest
Cen, R., Miralda-Escudé, J., & Ostriker, J. P. (1994) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 301
Molecular Hydrogen and Global Star Formation Relations in Galaxies
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Viel, M., Haehnelt, M. G., & Springel, V. (2004) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08224.x · Cited by 297
On the onset of galactic winds in quiescent star forming galaxies
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The formation of disc galaxies in a ΛCDM universe
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The case for AGN feedback in galaxy groups
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Self-citationMaughan, B. J., Jones, C. J., Forman, W., & Speybroeck, L. V. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1086/521225 · Cited by 285
Simulating the effect of active galactic nuclei feedback on the metal enrichment of galaxy clusters
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Tripp, T. M., Sembach, K. R., Bowen, D. V., Savage, B. D., Jenkins, E. B., Lehner, N., & Richter, P. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1086/587486 · Cited by 274
A Multispecies Model for Hydrogen and Helium Absorbers in Lyman-Alpha Forest Clouds
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The Formation of a Realistic Disk Galaxy in Λ‐dominated Cosmologies
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Self-citationMarigo, P. (2000) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000247/pdf · Cited by 263
MODELING MOLECULAR HYDROGEN AND STAR FORMATION IN COSMOLOGICAL SIMULATIONS
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Towards a realistic population of simulated galaxy groups and clusters
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Self-citationCrain, R. A., Theuns, T., Vecchia, C. D., Eke, V. R., Frenk, C. S., Jenkins, A., Kay, S. T., Peacock, J. A., Pearce, F. R., Schaye, J., et al. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15402.x · Cited by 251
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Henriques, B. M. B., White, S. D. M., Thomas, P. A., Angulo, R. E., Guo, Q., Lemson, G., & Springel, V. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt415 · Cited by 233
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Self-citationKrumholz, M. R., McKee, C. F., & Tumlinson, J. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/592490 · Cited by 222
Effects of feedback on the morphology of galaxy discs
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Self-citationMcCarthy, I. G., Schaye, J., Bower, R. G., Ponman, T. J., Booth, C. M., Vecchia, C. D., & Springel, V. (2011) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.18033.x · Cited by 217
Self-citationPuchwein, E., Sijacki, D., & Springel, V. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/593352 · Cited by 211
A superbubble feedback model for galaxy simulations
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GALAXY CLUSTER BARYON FRACTIONS REVISITED
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Implementation of feedback in smoothed particle hydrodynamics: towards concordance of methods
Durier, F., & Vecchia, C. D. (2011) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19712.x · Cited by 189
A DENSITY-INDEPENDENT FORMULATION OF SMOOTHED PARTICLE HYDRODYNAMICS
Saitoh, T. R., & Makino, J. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/768/1/44 · Cited by 185
A Multi-Species Model for Hydrogen and Helium Absorbers in Lyman-Alpha Forest CloudsPreprint
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MaGICC discs: matching observed galaxy relationships over a wide stellar mass range
Brook, C. B., Stinson, G., Gibson, B. K., Wadsley, J. W., & Quinn, T. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21306.x · Cited by 184
Munshi, F., Governato, F., Brooks, A. M., Christensen, C., Shen, S., Loebman, S., Moster, B. P., Quinn, T., & Wadsley, J. W. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/766/1/56 · Cited by 183
Crain, R. A., Theuns, T., Vecchia, C. D., Eke, V. R., Frenk, C. S., Jenkins, A. R., Kay, S. T., Peacock, J. A., Pearce, F. R., Schaye, J., et al. (2009) · Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) · doi:10.25916/sut.26290456.v1 · Cited by 181
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Self-citationThe XMM Cluster Survey: optical analysis methodology and the first data release
Mehrtens, N., Romer, A. K., Hilton, M., Lloyd-Davies, E. J., Miller, C. J., Stanford, S. A., Hosmer, M., Hoyle, B., Collins, C. A., Liddle, A. R., et al. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20931.x · Cited by 175
Shaping the galaxy stellar mass function with supernova- and AGN-driven winds
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Multiphase smoothed-particle hydrodynamics
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ON LYMAN-LIMIT SYSTEMS AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE INTERGALACTIC IONIZING BACKGROUND
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Self-citationMoving mesh cosmology: the hydrodynamics of galaxy formation
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The abundance of (not just) dark matter haloes
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Self-citationA Physical Upper Limit on the H [CSC]i[/CSC] Column Density of Gas Clouds
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Self-citationNew Developments in Understanding the HR Diagram
Chiosi, C., Bertelli, G., & Bressan, A. (1992) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.30.090192.001315 · Cited by 147
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Self-citationmagicc haloes: confronting simulations with observations of the circumgalactic medium at z=0
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Star formation sustained by gas accretion
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SPHS: smoothed particle hydrodynamics with a higher order dissipation switch
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SPHGal: smoothed particle hydrodynamics with improved accuracy for galaxy simulations
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THROUGH THICK AND THIN—H I ABSORPTION IN COSMOLOGICAL SIMULATIONS
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Oppenheimer, B. D., Davé, R., Katz, N., et al. (2011) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.20096.x · Cited by 129
A new way of setting the phases for cosmological multiscale Gaussian initial conditions
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Self-citationMultiphase Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics
Ritchie, B. W., & Thomas, P. A. (2001) · Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) · Cited by 124
Self-citationGraur, O., Poznanski, D., Maoz, D., Yasuda, N., Totani, T., Fukugita, M., Filippenko, A. V., Foley, R. J., Silverman, J. M., Gal-Yam, A., et al. (2011) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19287.x · Cited by 123
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Self-citationGraur, O., & Maoz, D. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sts718 · Cited by 118
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Self-citationUnderstanding the structural scaling relations of early-type galaxies
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BARYON CONTENT OF MASSIVE GALAXY CLUSTERS AT z = 0-0.6
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Marri, S., & White, S. D. M. (2003) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06984.x · Cited by 100
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Read, J. I., & Hayfield, T. (2012) · reroDoc Digital Library · doi:10.3929/ethz-b-000049213 · Cited by 98
The ExtendedHSTSupernova Survey: The Rate of SNe Ia atz> 1.4 Remains Low
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Pelupessy, F. I., Papadopoulos, P. P., & van der Werf, P. P. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/504366 · Cited by 93
Selection effects in the black hole-bulge relation and its evolution
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Non-equilibrium chemistry and cooling in the diffuse interstellar medium – II. Shielded gas
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Self-citationON THE BARYONIC, STELLAR, AND LUMINOUS SCALING RELATIONS OF DISK GALAXIES
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EVOLUTION IN THE VOLUMETRIC TYPE Ia SUPERNOVA RATE FROM THE SUPERNOVA LEGACY SURVEY
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Rogers, E. H. (2016) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · doi:10.15781/t22f9k · Cited by 82
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THE LAST EIGHT-BILLION YEARS OF INTERGALACTIC C IV EVOLUTION
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A subresolution multiphase interstellar medium model of star formation and supernova energy feedback
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Haas, M., Schaye, J., Booth, C. M., et al. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1487 · Cited by 71
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Numerical overcooling in shocks
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Self-citationMcCarthy, I. G., Schaye, J., Font, A. S., Theuns, T., Frenk, C. S., Crain, R. A., & Vecchia, C. D. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21951.x · Cited by 51
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Schaye, J., Crain, R. A., Bower, R. G., Furlong, M., Schaller, M., Theuns, T., Dalla Vecchia, C., Frenk, C. S., McCarthy, I. G., Helly, J. C., Jenkins, A., Rosas-Guevara, Y. M., White, S. D. M., Baes, M., Booth, C. M., Camps, P., Navarro, J. F., Qu, Y., Rahmati, A., Sawala, T., Thomas, P. A., & Trayford, J.
- Affiliations
- Leiden University (NL)
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Antwerp (BE)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Ghent University (BE)
- University of Victoria (CA)
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Schaye, Joop
- ORCID
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2014-11-11
- Volume
- 446
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 521-554
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2119131940
- Cited by
- 3,601
- References
- 209
- Citations by year
- 2026: 225 · 2025: 326 · 2024: 340 · 2023: 338 · 2022: 369 · 2021: 338 · 2020: 362 · 2019: 356 · 2018: 285 · 2017: 293 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 137 · 2014: 6
- FWCI
- 116.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- Liverpool John Moores University (acceptedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Liverpool John Moores University (submittedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (PHY11- 25915, ST/K003267/1, ST/H008519/1, FP7/2007-2013, ST/K00042X/1, NSF PHY-11-25915, 25915)
- European Commission (278594, NSF PHY11-25915, 2007–2013, 256573, FP7 2007-2013, FP7/2007)
- Durham University (ST/K00042X/1, ST/K003267/1, ST/H008519/1)
- Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe AISBL
- Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (AP P7/08 CHARM)
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (ST/K00042X/1, FP7 2007-2013, ST/H008519/1)
- Uniwersytet Warszawski
- Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/I00162X/1, ST/H008519, ST/I004459/2, ST/K00042X/1, PERG06-GA-2009-256573, FP7/2007-2013, ST/L00075X/1, ST/L00061X/1, ST/F001166/1, ST/H008519/1, ST/I000976/1, ST/K003267/1, ST/L000652/1, ST/I004459/1)
- European Regional Development Fund (FP7/2007‐2013, 2007 – 2013)
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (267291, 321334)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Keywords
- EAGLE simulation, galaxy formation, galaxy assembly, supermassive black hole formation, AGN feedback, stellar feedback, fluid simulation, stellar mass function, galaxy size, specific star formation rate, quiescent galaxies, Tully-Fisher relation, galaxy clusters, intergalactic medium, mass-metallicity relation, galaxy groups, subgrid physics, resolution limit
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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