The Auriga Project: the properties and formation mechanisms of disc galaxies across cosmic time
Open accessAbstract
We introduce a suite of 30 cosmological magneto-hydrodynamical zoom simulations of the formation of galaxies in isolated Milky Way mass dark haloes. These were carried out with the moving mesh code arepo, together with a comprehensive model for galaxy formation physics, including active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback and magnetic fields, which produces realistic galaxy populations in large cosmological simulations. We demonstrate that our simulations reproduce a wide range of present-day observables, in particular, two-component disc-dominated galaxies with appropriate stellar masses, sizes, rotation curves, star formation rates and metallicities. We investigate the driving mechanisms that set present-day disc sizes/scalelengths, and find that they are related to the angular momentum of halo material. We show that the largest discs are produced by quiescent mergers that inspiral into the galaxy and deposit high-angular momentum material into the pre-existing disc, simultaneously increasing the spin of dark matter and gas in the halo. More violent mergers and strong AGN feedback play roles in limiting disc size by destroying pre-existing discs and by suppressing gas accretion on to the outer disc, respectively. The most important factor that leads to compact discs, however, is simply a low angular momentum for the halo. In these cases, AGN feedback plays an important role in limiting central star formation and the formation of a massive bulge.
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The Auriga suite consists of 40 haloes, 30 of which have mass M_200 ∈ [1,2] × 10^12 M_sun, plus 10 additional lower mass haloes with M_200 just below ∼10^12 M_sun.
“The suite consist of 40 haloes, 30 of which have mass, M 200 ∈ [1 , 2] × 10 12 M ⊙ , and were first introduced in Grand et al. (2017), plus 10 additional lower mass haloes, with M 200 masses just below ∼ 10 12 M ⊙”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as Grand et al. 2017
Section 2.1 says Auriga comprises 30 haloes, and Section 2.2 gives their selection range as 1 < M_200/10^12 M_sun < 2. The paper does not report a 40-halo suite or the 10 additional lower-mass haloes, so it supports only the original 30-halo portion of the claim. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe Auriga simulations successfully reproduce many properties of observed central and satellite galaxies, such as stellar masses and star formation rates of spirals, density and kinematics of stellar haloes, and the luminosity function of MW satellites.
“The Auriga simulations successfully reproduce many properties of observed central and satellite galaxies, such as the stellar masses and star formation rates of spirals (Grand et al. 2017; Marinacci et al. 2017), the density and kinematics of stellar haloes (Deason et al. 2017; Monachesi et al. 2019b), and the luminosity function of MW satellites (Simpson et al. 2018).”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as Grand et al. 2017
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The Milky Way's rotation curve out to 100 kpc and its constraint on the Galactic mass distribution
Huang, Y., Liu, X.-W., Yuan, H., Xiang, M., Zhang, H., Chen, B., Ren, J., Wang, C., Zhang, Y., Hou, Y. H., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2096 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
The Tully-Fisher Relation and its Residuals for a Broadly Selected Sample of Galaxies
Pizagno, J., Prada, F., Weinberg, D. H., et al. (2007) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1086/519522 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Simulating cosmic ray physics on a moving mesh
Pfrommer, C., Pakmor, R., Schaal, K., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2941 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Self-citation(Star)bursts of FIRE: observational signatures of bursty star formation in galaxies
Sparre, M., Hayward, C., Feldmann, R., Faucher-Giguere, C., Muratov, A., Kereš, D., & Hopkins, P. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3011 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
A DENSITY-INDEPENDENT FORMULATION OF SMOOTHED PARTICLE HYDRODYNAMICS
Saitoh, T. R., & Makino, J. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/768/1/44 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
FUEL EFFICIENT GALAXIES: SUSTAINING STAR FORMATION WITH STELLAR MASS LOSS
Leitner, S. N., & Kravtsov, A. V. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/734/1/48 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Vertical disc heating in Milky Way-sized galaxies in a cosmological context
Grand, R. J. J., Springel, V., Gómez, F. A., Marinacci, F., Pakmor, R., Campbell, D. J. R., & Jenkins, A. R. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw601 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationShaping the galaxy stellar mass function with supernova- and AGN-driven winds
Puchwein, E., & Springel, V. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sts243 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationFeedback and the structure of simulated galaxies at redshift z= 2
Sales, L. V., Navarro, J. F., Schaye, J., et al. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17391.x · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Subsonic turbulence in smoothed particle hydrodynamics and moving-mesh simulations
Bauer, A., & Springel, V. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21058.x · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationMAGNETIC FIELDS IN COSMOLOGICAL SIMULATIONS OF DISK GALAXIES
Pakmor, R., Marinacci, F., & Springel, V. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/783/1/l20 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationCosmological galaxy formation simulations using smoothed particle hydrodynamics
Stinson, G. S., Bailin, J., Couchman, H. M. P., Wadsley, J. W., Shen, S., Nickerson, S., Brook, C. B., & Quinn, T. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17187.x · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Resolving mixing in smoothed particle hydrodynamics
Read, J. I., Hayfield, T., & Agertz, O. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16577.x · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Hierarchical formation of bulgeless galaxies: why outflows have low angular momentum
Brook, C. B., Governato, F., Roškar, R., Stinson, G. S., Brooks, A. M., Wadsley, J. W., Quinn, T., Gibson, B. K., Snaith, O. N., Pilkington, K., et al. (2011) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-48310 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
How supernova explosions power galactic winds
Creasey, P. E., Theuns, T., & Bower, R. G. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sts439 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
A Simulation of Galaxy Formation and Clustering
Pearce, F. R., Jenkins, A. R., Frenk, C. S., et al. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/312196 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citationNumerical simulations of radiatively driven dusty winds
Krumholz, M. R., & Thompson, T. A. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1174 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Lange, R., Moffett, A. J., Driver, S. P., Robotham, A. S. G., Lagos, C. D. P., Kelvin, L. S., Conselice, C. J., Margalef-Bentabol, B., Alpaslan, M., Baldry, I. K., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1495 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
On the stellar masses of IRAC detected Lyman Break Galaxies atz∼ 3
Magdis, G., Rigopoulou, D., Huang, J., et al. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15779.x · Cited by 126 · see citing works
MaGICC thick disc – I. Comparing a simulated disc formed with stellar feedback to the Milky Way
Stinson, G. S., Bovy, J., Rix, H., Brook, C. B., Roškar, R., Dalcanton, J. J., Macciò, A. V., Wadsley, J. W., Couchman, H. M. P., & Quinn, T. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1600 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
A new way of setting the phases for cosmological multiscale Gaussian initial conditions
Jenkins, A. R. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1154 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Self-citationKaufmann, T., Mayer, L., Wadsley, J. W., et al. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11314.x · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Second-order Lagrangian perturbation theory initial conditions for resimulations
Jenkins, A. R. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16259.x · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Self-citationMartinsson, T. P. K., Verheijen, M. A. W., Westfall, K. B., Bershady, M. A., Schechtman-Rook, A., Andersen, D. R., & Swaters, R. A. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220515 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Angular momentum properties of haloes and their baryon content in the Illustris simulation
Zjupa, J., & Springel, V. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2945 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationGrand, R. J. J., Springel, V., Kawata, D., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slw086 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citationZooming in on major mergers: dense, starbursting gas in cosmological simulations
Sparre, M., & Springel, V. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1793 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationNuclear cross sections, nuclear structure and stellar nucleosynthesis
Thielemann, F. ‐., Argast, D., Brachwitz, F., et al. (2003) · Nuclear Physics A · doi:10.1016/s0375-9474(03)00704-8 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Warps and waves in the stellar discs of the Auriga cosmological simulations
Gómez, F. A., White, S. D. M., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., Springel, V., & Pakmor, R. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2957 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationNulsen, P. E. J., & Fabian, A. C. (2000) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03038.x · Cited by 94 · see citing works
A fully cosmological model of a Monoceros-like ring
Gómez, F. A., White, S. D. M., Marinacci, F., Slater, C. T., Grand, R. J. J., Springel, V., & Pakmor, R. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2786 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationA systematic look at the effects of radiative feedback on disc galaxy formation
Roškar, R., Teyssier, R., Agertz, O., Wetzstein, M., & Moore, B. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1548 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Brooks, A., Solomon, A., Governato, F., McCleary, J., MacArthur, L., Brook, C., Jonsson, P., Quinn, T. P., & Wadsley, J. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/728/1/51 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
The large-scale properties of simulated cosmological magnetic fields
Marinacci, F., Vogelsberger, M., Mocz, P., & Pakmor, R. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1692 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationKawata, D. (2001) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/322309 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Do mergers spin-up dark matter haloes?
D’Onghia, E., & Navarro, J. F. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2007.00348.x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Properties of H i discs in the Auriga cosmological simulations
Marinacci, F., Grand, R. J. J., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., Gómez, F. A., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3366 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationNIHAO VI. The hidden discs of simulated galaxies
Obreja, A., Stinson, G. S., Dutton, A. A., Macciò, A. V., Wang, L., & Kang, X. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw690 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Baryonic and dark matter distribution in cosmological simulations of spiral galaxies
Mollitor, P., Nezri, E., & Teyssier, R. (2014) · Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2466 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
The origin of pseudo-bulges in cosmological simulations of galaxy formation
Okamoto, T. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sts067 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Kawata, D. (2001) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 63 · see citing works
On the stellar halo metallicity profile of Milky Way-like galaxies in the Auriga simulations
Monachesi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Kauffmann, G., Marinacci, F., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., & Frenk, C. S. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slw052 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationMarinacci, F., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., & Simpson, C. M. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1136 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationSharma, S., Steinmetz, M., & Bland‐Hawthorn, J. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/750/2/107 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
How to bend galaxy disc profiles: the role of halo spin
Herpich, J., Stinson, G. S., Dutton, A. A., et al. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slv006 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Forward and backward galaxy evolution in comoving cumulative number density space
Torrey, P., Wellons, S., Ma, C., Hopkins, P. F., & Vogelsberger, M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx370 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
GALAXY OUTFLOWS WITHOUT SUPERNOVAE
Sur, S., Scannapieco, E. S., & Ostriker, E. C. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/818/1/28 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
COSMOLOGICAL SIMULATIONS OF MILKY WAY-SIZED GALAXIES
Colín, P., Ávila-Reese, V., Roca-Fàbrega, S., & Valenzuela, O. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/829/2/98 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Testing hydrodynamics schemes in galaxy disc simulations
Few, C. G., Dobbs, C. L., Pettitt, A. R., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1226 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
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Evidence for two early accretion events that built the Milky Way stellar halo
Myeong, G. C., Vasiliev, E., Iorio, G., Evans, N. W., & Belokurov, V (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1770 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
Cautun, M., Benítez-Llambay, A., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Oman, K. A., Navarro, J. F., & Simpson, C. M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1017 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
“Our final sample consist of 33 medium-resolution and 5 high-resolution Auriga haloes, 16 medium-resolution and 6 high-resolution APOSTLE haloes, and 27 EAGLE_recal haloes.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Milky Way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
Cautun, M., Benitez-Llambay, A., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Oman, K. A., Navarro, J. F., & Simpson, C. M. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1911.04557 · Cited by 335
Self-citationLaporte, C. F. P., Johnston, K. V., Gómez, F. A., Garavito-Camargo, N., & Besla, G. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1574 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Self-citationThe mass of the Milky Way from satellite dynamics
Callingham, T. M., Cautun, M., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Wang, W., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz365 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationThe fraction of dark matter within galaxies from the IllustrisTNG simulations
Lovell, M. R., Pillepich, A., Genel, S., Nelson, D., Springel, V., Pakmor, R., Marinacci, F., Weinberger, R., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger, M., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2339 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citationThe total stellar halo mass of the Milky Way
Deason, A. J., Belokurov, V., & Sanders, J. L. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2793 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
The local high-velocity tail and the Galactic escape speed
Deason, A. J., Fattahi, A., Belokurov, V., Evans, N. W., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz623 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationThe gravitational force field of the Galaxy measured from the kinematics of RR Lyrae in Gaia
Wegg, C., Gerhard, O., & Bieth, M. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz572 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The slight spin of the old stellar halo
Deason, A. J., Belokurov, V., Koposov, S. E., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1301 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationProperties of H i discs in the Auriga cosmological simulations
Marinacci, F., Grand, R. J. J., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., Gómez, F. A., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3366 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationHani, M. H., Ellison, S. L., Sparre, M., Grand, R. J. J., Pakmor, R., Gomez, F. A., & Springel, V. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1708 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Grand, R. J. J., Gómez, F. A., Marinacci, F., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., Campbell, D. J. R., Frenk, C. S., Jenkins, A., & White, S. D. M.
- Affiliations
- Heidelberg University (DE)
- Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics (DE)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (DE)
- Durham University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Grand, Robert J. J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2017-01-12
- Pages
- stx071
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2528641579
- Cited by
- 557
- References
- 133
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 74 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 62 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 27.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Liverpool John Moores University (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Durham University (ST/K00042X/1, ST/K003267/1, ST/H008519/1)
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Gauss Centre for Supercomputing
- Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/H008519, ST/K00042X/1, ST/I00162X/1, ST/L00075X/1, ST/M007006/1, ST/P000541/1, ST/I001573/1, ST/H008519/1, ST/K003267/1)
- Leibniz-Gemeinschaft
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (308037)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- disk galaxies, galaxy formation, zoom-in simulations, AGN feedback, magnetic field, angular momentum, disk size, dark matter halos, bulge formation, star formation rate, metallicity, rotation curves, gas accretion
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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