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Set Relations in Social Research: Evaluating Their Consistency and Coverage
Abstract
Because of its inherently asymmetric nature, set-theoretic analysis offers many interesting contrasts with analysis based on correlations. Until recently, however, social scientists have been slow to embrace set-theoretic approaches. The perception was that this type of analysis is restricted to primitive, binary variables and that it has little or no tolerance for error. With the advent of “fuzzy” sets and the recognition that even rough set-theoretic relations are relevant to theory, these old barriers have crumbled. This paper advances the set-theoretic approach by presenting simple descriptive measures that can be used to evaluate set-theoretic relationships, especially relations between fuzzy sets. The first measure, “consistency,” assesses the degree to which a subset relation has been approximated, whereas the second measure, “coverage,” assesses the empirical relevance of a consistent subset. This paper demonstrates further that set-theoretic coverage can be partitioned in a manner somewhat analogous to the partitioning of explained variation in multiple regression analysis.
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“Relatedly, Ragin (2006, 304) suggests using 'consistency' (i.e., the share of cases having the same combination of conditions that also display the outcome) as a useful criterion”
From Qualitative Comparative Analysis: How Inductive Use and Measurement Error Lead to Problematic Inference (2013) · cites this paper as Ragin (2006, 304)
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“The final analysis, sensitivity analysis, examines whether the findings are robust to the use of alternative specifications of causal conditions (Ragin 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialGlobal innovation index: Moving beyond the absolute value of ranking with a fuzzy-set analysis
Crespo, N. F., & Crespo, C. F. (2016) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.04.123 · Cited by 151
Schneider, C. Q. (2018) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1017/pan.2017.45 · Cited by 140
“The former source of trivialness is taken care of by the coverage score (Ragin 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialGabriel, A. S., Campbell, J. T., Djurdjevic, E., Johnson, R. E., & Rosen, C. C. (2018) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428117752466 · Cited by 152
“…based are tied to psychometric theory and nicely correspond to the aforementioned thresholds.5 Once the three points were specified for each raw measure, the software performed the transformation of all variable values into fuzzy set scores based on the log odds of full membership (Ragin, 2006).”
MethodBirchler, K. M., & Michaelowa, K. (2015) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.11.008 · Cited by 138
“…this methodology and its specific terminology, and only present a short summary of the relevant parts of this framework.6 6 For details on this technique see Ragin (2000, 2006), Rihoux and Ragin (2009), Klüver (2010), and Longest and Vaisey (2008) who also programmed a corresponding Stata device.”
MethodThiem, A., Baumgartner, M., & Bol, D. (2016) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414014565892 · Cited by 138
“Note that “inclusion” is equivalent to “consistency” (Ragin, 2006; Smithson, 2005).”
BackgroundHug, S. (2013) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mps061 · Cited by 137
Configurations of effectuation, causation, and bricolage: implications for firm growth paths
An, W., Rüling, C.-C., Zheng, X., & Zhang, J. (2019) · Small Business Economics · doi:10.1007/s11187-019-00155-8 · Cited by 137
Technostress creators, personality traits, and job burnout: A fuzzy-set configurational analysis
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Muñoz, P., Kibler, E., Mandakovic, V., & Amorós, J. E. (2020) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2020.104065 · Cited by 164
Goertz, G. (2006) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02686312 · Cited by 138
Why do conflicts over scarce renewable resources turn violent? A qualitative comparative analysis
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Structure, Culture, and Community: The Search for Belonging in 50 Urban Communes
Vaisey, S. (2007) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240707200601 · Cited by 132
“…is estimated using Equation 1: IXY = min(xi,yi) / xi (1) where X stands for one of the 16 configurations (S•A•I•M, S•A•I•m, S•A•i•M, and so on), Y stands for the outcome set, and xi and yi stand for each commune’s membership score on X and Y, respectively (Ragin 2006b; Smithson and Verkuilen 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn Introduction to Crisp Set QCA, with a Comparison to Binary Logistic Regression
Grofman, B., & Schneider, C. Q. (2009) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1065912909338464 · Cited by 192
“The calculation of coverage, the second parameter, only makes sense when it is applied to conditions that have turned out to be “consistent enough” to be regarded as sufficient for Y (Ragin 2006).”
BackgroundEmployee Adaptive Behavior in Service Enactments
Leischnig, A., & Kasper-Brauer, K. (2014) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.07.008 · Cited by 132
Rao, N., Mishra, A., Prakash, A., Singh, C., Qaisrani, A., Poonacha, P., Vincent, K., & Bedelian, C. (2019) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0638-y · Cited by 150
Event attribution and partisanship shape local discussion of climate change after extreme weather
Boudet, H. S., Giordono, L. S., Zanocco, C. M., Satein, H., & Whitley, H. (2019) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0641-3 · Cited by 133
Bitcoin investment: a mixed methods study of investment motivations
Mattke, J., Maier, C., Reis, L., & Weitzel, T. (2020) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1080/0960085x.2020.1787109 · Cited by 149
“To avoid trivial necessary conditions (type 1 error) we additionally tested whether the coverage score and the relevance of necessity (RoN) score are higher than 0.60 (Ragin, 2006a).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe mediating role of competitive strategy in international entrepreneurial orientation
Hernández‐Perlines, F., Moreno‐García, J., & Yáñez‐Araque, B. (2016) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.04.142 · Cited by 128
“The unique coverage allows evaluating the importance of each causal combination (Ragin, 2006).”
BackgroundTourist engagement and loyalty: gender matters?
Rasoolimanesh, S. M., Khoo-Lattimore, C. S. C., Noor, S. M., Jaafar, M., & Konar, R. (2020) · Current Issues in Tourism · doi:10.1080/13683500.2020.1765321 · Cited by 134
“In fsQCA, using Boolean algebra, a series of sufficient combination of conditions (also called configurations, recipes, or causal models) are identified to predict or generate an outcome (Olya & Gavilyan, 2017; Ragin, 2006).”
MethodCheng, C., & Wang, L. (2021) · Technovation · doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2021.102398 · Cited by 132
Metadata
- Authors
- Ragin, C. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ragin, Charles C.
- ORCID
- Ragin, Charles C.
- Venue
- Political Analysis
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2006
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 291-310
- ISSN
- 1047-1987 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4989
- OpenAlex
- W2150935468
- Cited by
- 1,784
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 171 · 2025: 188 · 2024: 172 · 2023: 159 · 2022: 138 · 2021: 153 · 2020: 108 · 2019: 115 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 50 · 2013: 61 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 66.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Political Analysis (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Qualitative Comparative Analysis Research
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Fuzzy and Soft Set Theory
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Science Research and Education
- Keywords
- set-theoretic analysis, fuzzy sets, rough set theory, consistency measure, coverage measures, subset relation, explained variance, partitioning, binary variables, social science methodology
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