Cited by 639Stress Responses and CortisolHealth disparities and outcomesEmployment and Welfare Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 37 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Socioeconomic Status Is Associated With Stress Hormones

Open access

Cohen, Sheldon, Doyle, William J., Baum, Andrew·2006·Psychosomatic Medicine

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Objective: We assess whether socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with basal levels of cortisol and catecholamines and determine if any association between SES and these hormones can be explained (is mediated) by behavioral, social, and emotional differences across the SES gradient. Methods: One hundred ninety-three adult subjects, including men and women and whites and African-Americans, provided 24-hour urine catecholamine samples on each of 2 days and seven saliva cortisol samples on each of 3 days beginning 1 hour after wakeup and ending 14 to 16 hours later. Values for both hormones were averaged across days to obtain basal levels. Results: Lower SES (income and education) was associated with higher levels of cortisol and epinephrine and marginally higher levels of norepinephrine. These associations were independent of race, age, gender, and body mass. Low SES was also associated with a greater likelihood of smoking, of not eating breakfast, and with less diverse social networks. Further analyses provided evidence consistent with the hypothesis that these behavioral and social variables mediate the link between SES and the three stress hormones. Conclusions: Lower SES was associated in a graded fashion with higher basal levels of cortisol and catecholamines. These associations occurred independent of race, and the data were consistent with mediation by health practices and social factors. AUC = area under the curve; BMI = body mass index; CARDIA = Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study; ELISA = enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; HPA = hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical axis; ISEL = Interpersonal Support Evaluation List; LET = Life Engagement Test; SES = socioeconomic status; SNS = sympathetic nervous system.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1097/01.psy.0000221236.37158.b9

Cites

37 of 37 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research
Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4 · Cited by 35,234
The structure of coping
Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2136319 · Cited by 7,791 · cited 2×
“The internal reliabilities were 0.80 for the ISEL, 0.72 for the Mastery Scale, and 0.73 for the LET.”
MethodInfluential
Protective and Damaging Effects of Stress Mediators
McEwen, B. S. (1998) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199801153380307 · Cited by 6,733 · cited 2×
“Overall, these data may be viewed as biological verification that increasing SES is associated with decreasing psychophysiologic distress (1,5).”
Background
Hierarchical Linear Models
Gill, J. (2005) · Encyclopedia of Social Measurement · doi:10.1016/b0-12-369398-5/00166-3 · Cited by 3,126
Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient
Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme, S. L. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.1.15 · Cited by 2,383
Self-citation
Measuring the Functional Components of Social Support
Cohen, S., Mermelstein, R., Kamarck, T., & Hoberman, H. M. (1985) · Social Support: Theory, Research and Applications · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-5115-0_5 · Cited by 2,296
Self-citation
Social Ties and Susceptibility to the Common Cold
Heeler, R. M. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550150035019 · Cited by 1,300
Untitled work
(1995) · Cited by 1,270
Self-citation
Social Ties and Susceptibility to the Common Cold
Cohen, S. (1997) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540480040036 · Cited by 1,238
Self-citation
The Environment of Poverty: Multiple Stressor Exposure, Psychophysiological Stress, and Socioemotional Adjustment
Evans, G. W., & English, K. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00469 · Cited by 1,232

Show all 39 references

Sorted by citations

Items 601–639 of 639

Pandemic Disruptions and Their Consequences: A Comparative Analysis of Physical and Cognitive Development in Preschool Children (Preprint)Preprint
Song, H., Wang, J., Lau, W. C., Liu, J., & Shi, L. (2024) · doi:10.2196/preprints.69375
Understanding Parental Beliefs and Home Environment in Early Childhood Mathematics: A Perspective from the Theory of Planned Behavior
Li, Z. (2025) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) · doi:10.56902/etdcrp.2025.27
The Interaction Between Socioeconomic Status, Parent–Child Relationship, and the COMT Val158Met Polymorphism Predicts Chinese Preschoolers' Executive Function
Zhang, Y. (2025) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.70060
Unsoundness of Mind and Neurological Impairments: A Reappraisal of Section 22 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023
Ali, S. M., & Ghose, A. (2025) · International Annals of Criminology · doi:10.1017/cri.2025.10075
Regional variations and socioeconomic factors influencing sex hormone profiles in adolescent girls in Ghana
Baafour, E. K., Zakariah-Akoto, S., Ofori, M. F., Bentum-Ennin, L., Darko, O. N. O., Egbi, G., Abuaku, B. K., Ahorlu, C., & Yeboah‐Manu, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Reproductive Health · doi:10.3389/frph.2025.1579942
Peer victimization and behavioral problems in Chinese adolescents: The role of executive function and resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia
Ji, H., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.70097
A BIOECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING THE INTERACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY IN INFLUENCING CORTISOL AND BLOOD PRESSURE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS
Coulon, S. M. (2014) · Scholar Commons (University of South Carolina)
DOES SOCIAL STATUS PREDICT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENOCORTICAL ACTIVITY?
Miller, K. (2014) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
HPA axis reactivity to psychological stress among cocaine dependent individuals
Richards, J. (2011) · University Libraries (University of Maryland)
Study Design for Longitudinal and High Dimensional Measures.
Wu, M. (2013) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan)
Additional file 4 of The role of cortisol in ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease risk factors: a bi-directional Mendelian randomization study
Kwok, M. K., Kawachi, I. I., Rehkopf, D. H., & Schooling, C. M. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13294508
Additional file 3 of The role of cortisol in ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease risk factors: a bi-directional Mendelian randomization study
Kwok, M. K., Kawachi, I. I., Rehkopf, D. H., & Schooling, C. M. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13294505
Additional file 5 of An epigenome-wide analysis of socioeconomic position and tumor DNA methylation in breast cancer patients
Chen, J., Long, M. D., Sribenja, S., Ma, S. J., Yan, L., Hu, Q., Liu, S., Khoury, T., Hong, C.-C., Bandera, E. V., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26585025
Additional file 2 of The role of cortisol in ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease risk factors: a bi-directional Mendelian randomization study
Kwok, M. K., Kawachi, I. I., Rehkopf, D. H., & Schooling, C. M. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13294502
Additional file 2 of An epigenome-wide analysis of socioeconomic position and tumor DNA methylation in breast cancer patients
Chen, J., Long, M. D., Sribenja, S., Ma, S. J., Yan, L., Hu, Q., Liu, S., Khoury, T., Hong, C.-C., Bandera, E. V., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26585016
Additional file 3 of An epigenome-wide analysis of socioeconomic position and tumor DNA methylation in breast cancer patients
Chen, J., Long, M. D., Sribenja, S., Ma, S. J., Yan, L., Hu, Q., Liu, S., Khoury, T., Hong, C.-C., Bandera, E. V., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26585019
Additional file 1 of The role of cortisol in ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease risk factors: a bi-directional Mendelian randomization study
Kwok, M. K., Kawachi, I. I., Rehkopf, D. H., & Schooling, C. M. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13294499
Additional file 1 of An epigenome-wide analysis of socioeconomic position and tumor DNA methylation in breast cancer patients
Chen, J., Long, M. D., Sribenja, S., Ma, S. J., Yan, L., Hu, Q., Liu, S., Khoury, T., Hong, C.-C., Bandera, E. V., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26585013
Additional file 4 of An epigenome-wide analysis of socioeconomic position and tumor DNA methylation in breast cancer patients
Chen, J., Long, M. D., Sribenja, S., Ma, S. J., Yan, L., Hu, Q., Liu, S., Khoury, T., Hong, C.-C., Bandera, E. V., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26585022
Teachers’ Child-Centered Beliefs and Preschool Children’s Gains in Language and Self-Regulation: The Role of Teachers’ Intentional InteractionsPreprint
Wang, S., Huang, J., Yin, H., Xie, H., Liu, C., & Liang, L. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5731144
Receiving caregiver support and its association with hair hormones in people living with Alzheimer’s disease: The role of caregivers’ perspective taking
Huo, M. L., Kim, K., Brown, C. L., Gilligan, M., & Wang, W. (2026) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2026.107746
Mixed evidence for stress effects on cortisol-testosterone coupling in Syrian refugee and Jordanian non-refugee adolescents
Glass, D. J., Godwin, J., Koehn, J., Dajani, R. B., Hadfield, K., Panter‐Brick, C., & Martin, M. A. (2026) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2026.107757
Inequalities in lifestyle and metabolic risk factors across wealth and education levels among TUMS employees
Baigi, V., Nayerloo, N., Ghavidel, F., Pouragha, H., & Abdollahpour, I. (2026) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-026-27085-x
The Changing Patterns of Relative Poverty and Healthy Aging Among the Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Korea: A Dual Group Based Trajectory Modeling Approach
Kim, M. S., Kim, H.-J., & Kim, J. M. (2026) · Journal of Gerontological Social Work · doi:10.1080/01634372.2026.2651890
Rang social, système dopaminergique et réponse au stress
Battivelli, D. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/b11d29f4z1bf3z4003z81f9z8c69988b277b
The effects of short-term motivational factors and calisthenic exercise on blood cortisol levels, and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress in young adults: a randomized controlled trial
Kaplan, M., Çakar, F., Şimşek, H., Çelik, M., & Özer, M. Y. (2026) · BMC Sports Science Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s13102-026-01699-5
A prospective cohort study on the incidence and influencing factors of subsyndromal delirium in ICU patients
Li, Y., Huang, J., Wang, X., & Pan, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1742731
The differential role of language and executive functions in the relation between socioeconomic status and theory of mind in preschool and school-aged children
Houdayer, J., Stanc, L. L., Rémeau, M., de Carvalho, A., Houdé, O., Bardi, L., & Borst, G. (2026) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2026.100286
Bidirectional associations among spatial skills, patterning, and mathematical skills in Chinese preschool children within one academic year
Xie, H., & Yaacob, N. R. N. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2026.106563 · Cited by 1
Understanding the dynamics of school connectedness and bystanders’ defending behavior in bullying: the mediating role of personal mastery
Chen, Z., Li, J., & Chu, X. (2026) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-026-10253-7
Executive function and Chinese preschoolers' early mathematical skills: The indirect role of patterning and spatial skills
Xie, H., Yaacob, N. R. N., & Ouyang, H. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107382 · Cited by 1
Parental psychological control and smartphone addiction in Chinese college students: the moderated mediation roles of self-control and achievement motivation
Bai, Y., Peng, Y., Chen, Y., & Wang, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873493
Large-scale proteomics to identify novel biomarkers linking social determinants of health to heart failure risk
Ramonfaur, D., Zierath, R., Yang, Y., Lamberson, V., Claggett, B. L., Powell‐Wiley, T. M., Leonard, T., Kucharska‐Newton, A., Walker, K. A., Chang, P. P., et al. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aec5063
Vascular Fitness in the Youth: 3PM-Guided Lifestyle Recommendations
Evsevieva, M. E., Сергеева, О. В., Владимирович, Е. М., Rostovceva, M. V., Kudriavceva, V. D., Guseva, A. V., Martynov, M. V., Батурин, В. А., Koshel, I. V., & Golubnitschaja, O. (2026) · Advances in predictive, preventive and personalised medicine · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-32838-0_9
The Contradictory Effects of Perceived Socio-Economic Class on Status Consumption Among South Korean College Students: A Stress-Coping Theory Perspective
Kim, J., & Kim, Y.-S. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261485783
Behavioral and immunolgical effects of repeated social defeat
Kinsey, S. G. (2007) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Women, smoking cessation and disadvantage : a mixed methods investigation of the factors influencing smoking cessation in women
Beck, F. (2013) · The University of Bath Online Publications Store (The University of Bath)
The Relationship Between Perceived Social Status, Stress, and Health in Mexican American Immigrants
Green, R. M. (2010) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University)
Influência da resposta aguda de estresse no desempenho da memória de idosos saudáveis
dos Santos, A. T. (2013) · doi:10.11606/d.7.2013.tde-22082014-152926

Authors: Cohen, S., Doyle, W. J., & Baum, A.
Affiliations: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (US)
Corresponding author: Cohen, Sheldon
ORCID: Cohen, Sheldon
Doyle, William J.
Baum, Andrew
Venue: Psychosomatic Medicine
Publisher: Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)
Published: 2006-05
Volume: 68
Issue: 3
Pages: 414-420
ISSN: 0033-3174 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1097/01.psy.0000221236.37158.b9
OpenAlex: W2046597351
Cited by: 639
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 16 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 27
FWCI: 8.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
figshare.com
Licence: cc-by
Locations: Psychosomatic Medicine (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
KiltHub Repository (submittedVersion)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
KiltHub Repository
Funders: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL65111, HL65112, P50HL065112, P50HL065111)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Employment and Welfare Studies
Keywords: socioeconomic status, cortisol, catecholamines, epinephrine, norepinephrine, stress hormones, mediation, smoking, breakfast skipping, social networks, health behavior, African Americans, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, sympathetic nervous system
MeSH terms: Adult, Catecholamines, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Male, Middle Aged, Social Class, Social Support, Stress, Physiological, Stress, Psychological, Health Behavior

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Socioeconomic Status Is Associated With Stress Hormones

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks