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Cited by 111Health disparities and outcomesRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchRace, History, and American Society

Jim Crow and Premature Mortality Among the US Black and White Population, 1960–2009: An Age–Period–Cohort Analysis

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Krieger, Nancy, Chen, Jarvis T., Coull, Brent A., Beckfield, Jason, Kiang, Mathew V., Waterman, Pamela D.·2014·Epidemiology
DOI 10.1097/ede.0000000000000104PMC PMC4710482
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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Scant research has analyzed the health impact of abolition of Jim Crow (ie, legal racial discrimination overturned by the US 1964 Civil Rights Act). METHODS: We used hierarchical age-period-cohort models to analyze US national black and white premature mortality rates (death before 65 years of age) in 1960-2009. RESULTS: Within a context of declining US black and white premature mortality rates and a persistent 2-fold excess black risk of premature mortality in both the Jim Crow and non-Jim Crow states, analyses including random period, cohort, state, and county effects and fixed county income effects found that, within the black population, the largest Jim Crow-by-period interaction occurred in 1960-1964 (mortality rate ratio [MRR] = 1.15 [95% confidence interval = 1.09-1.22), yielding the largest overall period-specific Jim Crow effect MRR of 1.27, with no such interactions subsequently observed. Furthermore, the most elevated Jim Crow-by-cohort effects occurred for birth cohorts from 1901 through 1945 (MRR range = 1.05-1.11), translating to the largest overall cohort-specific Jim Crow effect MRRs for the 1921-1945 birth cohorts (MRR ~ 1.2), with no such interactions subsequently observed. No such interactions between Jim Crow and either period or cohort occurred among the white population. CONCLUSION: Together, the study results offer compelling evidence of the enduring impact of both Jim Crow and its abolition on premature mortality among the US black population, although insufficient to eliminate the persistent 2-fold black excess risk evident in both the Jim Crow and non-Jim Crow states from 1960 to 2009.

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  • The intellectual contributions to advancing the science of structural racism have often been led by researchers from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds, whose inclusion has been limited by the racist academic enterprise itself.

    “Further, the intellectual contributions to advancing the science of structural racism have often been led by researchers from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds, whose inclusion have been limited by the racist academic enterprise itself [46].”

    From Structural Racism Conceptualization and Operationalization for Research for the U.S. HIV Epidemic: Findings from a Scoping Review and Implications for Advancing Research for Structural Interventions (2024) · cites this paper as [46]

    The passage on Pauli Murray’s pathbreaking compilation (section labeled Abstract > Conclusion; page not provided) identifies an important contribution, but does not address whether researchers from minoritized backgrounds have often led this field or faced exclusion from academia. The Discussion addresses structural racism and health, not researchers’ backgrounds or academic inclusion; searches for those points found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.72)

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  1. [1]Holford TR Temporal factors in public health surveillance: sorting out age, period, and cohort effects Brookmeyer R Stroup DF Monitoring the Health of Populations: Statistical Principles and Methods for Public Health Surveillance New York, NY Oxford University Press 2003 99 126
  2. [6]Yang Y Land KC Age-Period-Cohort Analysis: New Models, Methods, and Empirical Applications Boca Raton, Fla CRC Press 2013
  3. [8]Masters RK Hummer RA Powers DA Educational differences in US mortality: a cohort perspective Am Sociol Rev 2010 77 548 572 25346542 PMC4208076
  4. [11]Krieger N Epidemiology and The People’s Health: Theory and Context New York, NY Oxford 2011
  5. [16]Almond DV Chay KY Greenstone M Civil Rights, the War on Poverty, and Black-White convergence in infant mortality in the rural South and Mississippi 31 12 2006 MIT Economics Working Paper No. 07-04 Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=961021 Accessed 24 May 2013
  6. [21]Kitagawa EM Hauser PM Differential Mortality in the United States: A Study in Socioeconomic Epidemiology Cambridge, Mass Harvard University Press 1973
  7. [25]US Census Bureau Table C2 Median family income by county: 1959, 1969, 1979, and 1989 Available at: http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/county/county2.html Accessed 24 May 2013

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Authors
Krieger, N., Chen, J. T., Coull, B. A., Beckfield, J., Kiang, M. V., & Waterman, P. D.
Affiliations
Harvard University (US)
Corresponding author
Krieger, Nancy
ORCID
Venue
Epidemiology
Publisher
Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)
Published
2014-07
Volume
25
Issue
4
Pages
494-504
ISSN
1044-3983 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1097/ede.0000000000000104
PMC
PMC4710482
OpenAlex
W2317302092
Cited by
111
References
19
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1
FWCI
8.52
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Cancer Institute (R21CA168470)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Race, History, and American Society
Keywords
Jim Crow, racial discrimination, premature mortality, racial disparities in health, Black-White health disparities, Civil Rights Act of 1964, racial segregation, birth cohort, age-period-cohort analysis
MeSH terms
Aged, Black or African American, Humans, Middle Aged, United States, Cohort Studies, White People, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Mortality, Premature, Racism

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