The DOI matches its Crossref record; 256 of the 257 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 178 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis
Open accessAbstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are the two etiologic agents of cryptococcosis.They belong to the phylum Basidiomycota and can be readily distinguished from other pathogenic yeasts such as Candida by the presence of a polysaccharide capsule, formation of melanin, and urease activity, which all function as virulence determinants.Infection proceeds via inhalation and subsequent dissemination to the central nervous system to cause meningoencephalitis.The most common risk for cryptococcosis caused by C. neoformans is AIDS, whereas infections caused by C. gattii are more often reported in immunocompetent patients with undefined risk than in the immunocompromised.There have been many chapters, reviews, and books written on C. neoformans.The topics we focus on in this article include species description, pathogenesis, life cycle, capsule, and stress response, which serve to highlight the specializations in virulence that have occurred in this unique encapsulated melanin-forming yeast that causes global deaths estimated at more than 600,000 annually. HISTORY OF THE ETIOLOGIC AGENTS AND CRYPTOCOCCOSISC ryptococcus neoformans was first isolated from peach juice by Sanfelice in 1894 in Italy and was named Saccharomyces neoformans (Sanfelice 1894).In the same year, Busse provided the first description of a case of cryptococcosis (Busse 1894) and isolated a yeast culture from a sarcoma-like lesion in the infected young woman's tibia.Busse called the fungus Saccharomyces, while naming the disease Sac-
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review summarizes the biology, taxonomy, ecology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and virulence determinants of *Cryptococcus neoformans* and *Cryptococcus gattii*, the two agents of cryptococcosis. It emphasizes the three classical virulence traits — polysaccharide capsule, melanin formation, and growth at mammalian body temperature — along with newer work on sensing/signaling and stress-response pathways.
Key findings
- Cryptococcosis is acquired by inhalation of desiccated yeast cells or basidiospores (1.5–3.5 µm), which reach the distal airways; in immunocompromised hosts the fungus disseminates hematogenously across the blood–brain barrier to cause meningoencephalitis, which is uniformly fatal if untreated. The global burden is estimated at close to 1 million cases with 700,000 deaths annually (Park et al. 2009); the abstract cites global deaths estimated at more than 600,000 annually.
- *C. neoformans* infection is predominantly associated with AIDS and other immunocompromising conditions, whereas *C. gattii* infection occurs more often in immunocompetent patients; pulmonary infection is considerably more common with *C. gattii*, and mouse studies show *C. neoformans*-infected mice die of CNS infection while *C. gattii*-infected mice die of pulmonary infection.
- Worldwide, *C. neoformans* molecular type VNI predominates (63% of isolates), followed by VNII/VNIII (6% each) and VNIV (5%); *C. gattii* accounts for <20% of cryptococcosis globally, with VGI most common (9%), then VGII (7%), VGIII (3%), and VGIV (1%) among 2046 isolates.
- Azole heteroresistance, caused by reversible disomy of chromosomes containing resistance genes (chromosome 1 always duplicating first, then chromosome 4 and others stepwise), is suggested to be the most common cause of azole treatment failure during suppression therapy in AIDS patients.
Methods
- Narrative review article (Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine) synthesizing historical, taxonomic, ecological, epidemiological, and molecular literature on *C. neoformans* and *C. gattii*.
- No primary data collection; the paper compiles findings from cited studies, including molecular typing, genome comparisons, animal infection models, and clinical/epidemiological surveys.
- Topics covered include species description, pathogenesis, life cycle, capsule, melanin, thermotolerance, degradation enzymes, metal/gas/light sensing, and stress-signaling pathways (HOG, Mpk1, calcineurin, cAMP/PKA, UPR).
Limitations
- The paper states that a consensus on how to treat the *C. neoformans*/*C. gattii* species complex taxonomically has yet to be achieved, and that elevating the eight major haploid molecular types to species status is controversial.
- The paper notes that understanding of the host response to cryptococci is mostly based on animal data, and that the genetic basis of capsule size regulation has not been elucidated; the glycosyltransferases mediating capsule synthesis are largely uncharacterized.
- Evident from the text: several statements rest on single or few cited studies (e.g., the GM-CSF autoantibody finding in immunocompetent *C. gattii* patients), and the review repeatedly flags open questions (e.g., whether light-sensing mutants' virulence defect relates to known traits, whether ROS/RNS events in *C. gattii* occur in *C. neoformans*).
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Claims the paper makes
136 Not checked yet · 44 No basis given · 11 Own interpretation · 1 Own result
In the paper
“Curtis' strain was later determined to be the first clinical isolate of C. gattii (Kwon-Chung et al. 2002).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kwon-Chung et al. 2002
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“They belong to the phylum Basidiomycota and can be readily distinguished from other pathogenic yeasts such as Candida by the presence of a polysaccharide capsule, formation of melanin, and urease activity, which all function as virulence determinants.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Seeliger 1956
- Not checked yetcites Staib 1962b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“By the mid-1970s, the complete life cycles of C. neoformans and C. gattii became known when heterothallic sexuality was discovered in both species (Kwon-Chung 1975, 1976b).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kwon-Chung 1975, 1976b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Distribution of the four major molecular types of C. gattii strains among 2046 cryptococcal isolates from clinical and veterinary sources indicat that the VGI type is most common (9%) followed by VGII (7%), VGIII (3%), and VGIV (1%) in decreasing order (Meyer et al. 2011).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al. 2011
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Genotyping of numerous C. neoformans and C. gattii global strains revealed that each species is composed of at least four major genetically diverse subgroups (Meyer et al. 2011).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al. 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cryptococcosis begins with inhalation of desiccated airborne yeast cells, or possibly sexually produced basidiospores, into the lungs (Fig. 1).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > HOST RESPONSE AND PATHOGENESIS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the prevalence of C. gattii infection remains more pronounced in the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, recent studies have indicated that the species has expanded to temperate zones.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Molecular phylogenetic studies have since shown that C. neoformans and C. gattii cluster with the members of the order Tremellales instead of Filobasidiales (Fonseca et al. 2011).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fonseca et al. 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Strains of C. neoformans molecular type VNI are the predominant etiologic agents of cryptococcosis isolated worldwide (63%) followed by VNII/VNIII (6% each) and VNIV (5%) type (Meyer et al. 2011).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al. 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Subsequent molecular clock analysis has estimated that these species diverged approximately 50 million years ago (Ngamskulrungroj et al. 2009a).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ngamskulrungroj et al. 2009a
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 29
- It may state two separate claims as one. 67
In the paper
“Cryptococcal antigenic heterogeneity was confirmed in 1950 by Evans who identified three serotypes: A, B, and C (Evans 1950).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans 1950
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“The characteristic neurotropism of C. neoformans was first recognized in 1914 by Verse ´(1914), and 2 years later by Stoddard and Cutler (1916).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verse 1914
- Not checked yetcites Stoddard and Cutler 1916
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most common risk for cryptococcosis caused by C. neoformans is AIDS, whereas infections caused by C. gattii are more often reported in immunocompetent patients with undefined risk than in the immunocompromised.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A fourth serotype, D, was discovered in 1968 (Wilson et al. 1968).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson et al. 1968
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“They belong to the phylum Basidiomycota and can be readily distinguished from other pathogenic yeasts such as Candida by the presence of a polysaccharide capsule, formation of melanin, and urease activity, which all function as virulence determinants.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Seeliger 1956
- Not checked yetcites Staib 1962b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are the two etiologic agents of cryptococcosis.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Infection proceeds via inhalation and subsequent dissemination to the central nervous system to cause meningoencephalitis.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In the same year, Busse provided the first description of a case of cryptococcosis (Busse 1894) and isolated a yeast culture from a sarcoma-like lesion in the infected young woman's tibia.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Busse 1894
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most common risk for cryptococcosis caused by C. neoformans is AIDS, whereas infections caused by C. gattii are more often reported in immunocompetent patients with undefined risk than in the immunocompromised.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the propagules are small (1.5 -3.5 mm), they reach the distal airways and come into contact with alveolar macrophages.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > HOST RESPONSE AND PATHOGENESIS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Serologic evidence indicates that cryptococcal infection in humans is prevalent (Goldman et al. 2001) but disease is rare.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > HOST RESPONSE AND PATHOGENESIS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Goldman et al. 2001
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“C. neoformans contains molecular types VNI-VNIV and VNB with var.grubii VNI, VNII, and VNB strains, estimated to have diverged from the single var.neoformans molecular type VNIV (serotype D) approximately 25 million years ago, and serotype AD (VNIII) strains representing hybrids of the two varieties.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al. 2011
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Regardless of molecular type, global clinical isolates are almost always mating type a (MATa) except for certain areas in Africa such as Botswana, where MATa can be as common as 10% of strains (Litvintseva et al. 2003).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Litvintseva et al. 2003
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, elevating the eight major haploid molecular types to separate species status is controversial at present and a consensus on how to treat the C. neoformans/C.gattii species complex taxonomically has yet to be achieved among medical mycologists (de Hoog et al. 2013).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Hoog et al. 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Upon this loss of immunity, the dormant yeast cells are activated and begin to multiply in the pulmonary -lymph node complex and disseminate into extrapulmonary sites.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > HOST RESPONSE AND PATHOGENESIS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“C. neoformans can survive in amoebae and the fungus can utilize the same pathogenic strategy in human macrophages, which in some respect provides a similar environment.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > ECOLOGY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The importance of understanding the pathogen became even more pressing as an unprecedented rate of increase in cryptococcosis began in the early 1980s, with AIDS becoming the leading risk factor of the disease.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“its use has been abandoned as of 2013 and only Cryptococcus is used in accordance with the new fungal nomenclatural rule of one name for one fungus (Hawksworth et al. 2011).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hawksworth et al. 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These discoveries were timely, as cryptococcosis had been considered a rare disease until immunosuppressive therapy came into wide use starting in the 1970s.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the vast majority of patients with disseminated cryptococcosis are immunocompromised, C. neoformans also causes disease in apparently normal hosts.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importation of Eucalyptus trees from Australia, the accelerated rate of human international travel, and climate changes may all have contributed to the spread of C. gattii to temperate zones.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although serotype AD hybrids are common, these are sterile, and hybrids between other molecular types are rare, raising the possibility that each haploid type may in fact represent different species.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“C. gattii molecular types VGI and VGII usually correspond with serotype B, and molecular types VGIII and VGIV with serotype C; these molecular types have been estimated to have diverged over 8.5 -12.5 million years.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al. 2011
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although virtually every organ in the body can be involved, infection of the central nervous system (CNS) is the most common clinical manifestation of cryptococcosis and the most common cause of death.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > HOST RESPONSE AND PATHOGENESIS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 2000, C. neoformans var.gattii was elevated to a species, C. gattii (Kwon-Chung et al. 2002) and the taxon C. neoformans was reserved for the varieties neoformans and grubii.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF C. neoformans AND C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kwon-Chung et al. 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cryptococcosis caused by C. gattii is significantly less frequent globally (,20%) than C. neoformans (80%), and the major risk factors for C. gattii infection remain unclear.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The global burden of the disease is estimated to be close to 1 million cases with 700,000 deaths annually (Park et al. 2009).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > EPIDEMIOLOGY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Park et al. 2009
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Like C. neoformans, C. gattii has 14 chromosomes, and although the predicted centromere locations are conserved, the chromosomes have been rearranged by inversions and balanced translocations.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genotypic Differences between C. neoformans and C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites D 'Souza et al. 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The capsule may also include mannoproteins, hyaluronic acid, and sialic acid.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“These basidiospores can cause infection in a mouse model just as efficiently as vegetative yeast cells, and may play the role of infectious particles (Giles et al. 2009).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > MYCOLOGY Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Giles et al. 2009
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A majority of the clinical isolates obtained before the birth of azoles had an LHF of 16 mg/mL or lower (Sionov et al. 2009), whereas the LHF of C. gattii was generally higher (Varma and Kwon-Chung 2010).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TREATMENT AND RESISTANCE TO DRUGS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sionov et al. 2009
- Not checked yetcites Varma and Kwon-Chung 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Animal studies supported these differences in the primary target organs between the two species; mice infected with C. neoformans succumbed to infection by CNS infection, whereas mice infected with C. gattii died by pulmonary infection (Ngamskulrungroj et al. 2012c).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > HOST RESPONSE AND PATHOGENESIS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ngamskulrungroj et al. 2012c
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The morphology of the two teleomorphs are even more different: rough-walled oblong to eliptical basidiospores are produced in C. neoformans, whereas the basidiospores produced by C. gattii, as suggested by the original teleomorph designation of F. bacillispora, are in bacillary form with smooth walls (Fig. 3A) (Kwon-Chung 1975, 1976b).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > MYCOLOGY Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kwon-Chung 1975, 1976b
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the morphology of C. neoformans yeast cells are almost uniformly globose, those of C. gattii are a mixture of globose and oblong to elliptical cells (Kwon-Chung et al. 1982a); this proportion of globose to oblong cells in C. gattii is strain dependent (Fig. 3B -D).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > MYCOLOGY Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kwon-Chung et al. 1982a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It has subsequently been shown that since the divergence of var.grubii and var.neoformans, few genomic rearrangements have occurred in the var.grubii lineage and even more in var.neoformans”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genotypic Differences between C. neoformans and C. gattii
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sun and Xu 2009
- Not checked yetcites Morrow et al. 2012
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“C. neoformans (Fig. 2) and C. gattii (Fig. 3) are both heterothallic haploid yeasts that exist in two mating types, MATa and MATa.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > MYCOLOGY Life Cycle
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although sometimes used alone, it be-came common in the early 1980s to use this polyene in combination with flucytosine, a fluorinated pyrimidine analog (Bennett et al. 1979).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TREATMENT AND RESISTANCE TO DRUGS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bennett et al. 1979
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Amphotericin B, a secondary metabolite of Streptomyces nodosus, has been the major therapeutic agent for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis since the late 1960s (Sarosi et al. 1969).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TREATMENT AND RESISTANCE TO DRUGS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sarosi et al. 1969
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With .6500genes with an average size of 1.9 kb”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genotypic Differences between C. neoformans and C. gattii
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, a recent report indicates that monokaryotic hyphal production unrelated to unisexual reproduction can be induced by high-temperature arrest of yeast cell cycle in the G 2 stage (Fu et al. 2013).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > MYCOLOGY Life Cycle
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fu et al. 2013
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“More important, the treatment strategy for cryptococcosis may vary depending on the different categories of risk groups: HIV-infected patients, organ transplant recipients, non-HIV-infected, and nontransplant patients.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TREATMENT AND RESISTANCE TO DRUGS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Perfect et al. 2010
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The capsule is displayed on the cryptococcal surface and component polysaccharides are also shed into the environment.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The lowest level of fluconazole at which the heteroresistant minor subpopulation emerges (LHF) and the frequency of resistant subpopulation varies depending on the strain.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > TREATMENT AND RESISTANCE TO DRUGS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The cryptococcal capsule is anchored by the cell wall, which is composed of glucans, chitin, chitosan, and glycoprotein”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Doering 2009
- Not checked yetcites Gilbert et al. 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Activation of the cAMP/ PKA pathway, which can be triggered by altered CO 2 levels, low glucose, low nitrogen, or low iron resulting in direct activation of the transcription factor Nrg1, can also result in the regulation of Hog1 and/or Rim101 in response to pH alteration and osmotic stress, respectively”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genetic Control and Regulation of Capsule Formation and Secretion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bahn et al. 2005b
- Not checked yetcites Cramer et al. 2006
- Not checked yetcites O'Meara et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Rim101 also plays a central role in pH response and capsule regulation”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genetic Control and Regulation of Capsule Formation and Secretion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites O'Meara et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the genome encodes other putative nucleotide sugar transporters, they have not been matched to specific functions required for capsule synthesis.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“calcineurin, the highly conserved Ca 2þ / calmodulin-activated serine/threonine-specific phosphatase encoded by CNA1, to be essential for growth at 37 ˚C but not at 24 ˚C.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Growth at Mammalian Body Temperature
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Odom et al. 1997
- Not checked yetcites Fox et al. 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“C. neoformans contains two laccase genes, LAC1 and LAC2, in the genome but only LAC1 is expressed significantly under most conditions and virulence is reduced only when the LAC1 gene is deleted”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Melanin Formation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zhu and Williamson 2004
- Not checked yetcites Pukkila-Worley et al. 2005
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Melanin is produced by a wide variety of fungal species and the pigment deposited in the cell wall is known to play an important protective role against environmental stress”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Melanin Formation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nosanchuk and Casadevall 2006
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, secretion of the capsule and the genetics of its regulation have not been studied extensively.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genetic Control and Regulation of Capsule Formation and Secretion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although whether this is a direct or indirect interaction has not been determined.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The lack of these proteins reduces capsule produc-tion and virulence in animal models, except for the enzyme responsible for UDP-galactofuranose synthesis”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Heiss et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Enzymes required for synthesis of the first four have been biochemically characterized, and genes encoding synthetic machinery for all five have been identified and deleted to assess the impact on cells”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Capsule
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bar-Peled et al. 2001, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Wills et al. 2001
- Not checked yetcites Moyrand et al. 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, multiple transduction pathways respond to each environmental signal and a single transduction cascade can respond to multiple signals.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genetic Control and Regulation of Capsule Formation and Secretion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the genes that encode the transcription factors Cir1 and HapX are necessary for iron homeostasis and are specifically induced under low iron conditions”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Genetic Control and Regulation of Capsule Formation and Secretion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kronstad et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As in the case of capsule formation, melanization is regulated by number of different pathways”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Melanin Formation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Liu et al. 2008
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“C. neoformans senses iron levels, and regulates a suite of genes using the Cir1 transcription factor”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jung et al. 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two homologs are expressed in C. neoformans, with Can2 having the major function.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Other factors, such as the siderophore transporter Sit1, are not required for pathogenesis although this may reflect gene redundancy”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangen et al. 2007
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Scp1 cleaves the inactive Sre1 into an active transcription factor that is shuttled into the nucleus.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Effects of iron limitation on C. neoformans have been known since the early 1990s, because one consequence is the enhancement of capsule formation”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Vartivarian et al. 1993
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Strains harboring an intact URE1 but disrupted accessory proteins disseminated to the brain at rates similar to the ure1 mutant, which indicates that it is the urease activity and not the Ure1 protein that is a virulence factor in C. neoformans”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Degradation Enzymes
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Singh et al. 2013
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Carbonic anhydrases are zinc proteins that convert CO 2 to bicarbonate (HCO3 -).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although genes for heme biosynthesis and iron uptake are induced by light, the light-sensing mutants do not have phenotypes that indicate any change in these properties”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Idnurm and Heitman 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Another source of iron for C. neoformans is heme, yet use of this iron source is currently less well established”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jung et al. 2010
- Not checked yetcites Cadieux et al. 2013
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“C. neoformans produces many degradation enzymes; some of them have been confirmed as virulence determinants.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Degradation Enzymes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“MAC1 (CUF1) encodes a copper-response transcription factor that regulates target genes”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ding et al. 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the cryptococcal urease is a nickel enzyme and requires the accessory proteins, Ure4, Ure6, and Ure7, which are homologs of the bacterial accessory proteins UreD, UreF, and UreG, respectively.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > Degradation Enzymes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Deletion of CAN2 prevents growth under low CO 2 concen-trations; however, virulence is unaffected presumably because of the high CO 2 concentrations within the host”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bahn et al. 2005a
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: O2 and CO2 vary in concentration in different parts of the body, lower or higher, respectively, than the natural environment in which Cryptococcus species reside.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Zinc is a cofactor in many proteins, including zinc finger transcription factors, so loss of virulence may reflect an impact on a number of key processes.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Those genes include an adjacent pair of genes for iron oxidation and high-affinity uptake, which are also required for full virulence”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jung et al. 2008
- Not checked yetcites Jung et al. 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Deletion of either gene reduces the ability of C. neoformans to grow at ,3% oxygen levels, and reduces virulence”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chang et al. 2007
- Not checked yetcites Chun et al. 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: O2 and CO2 vary in concentration in different parts of the body, lower or higher, respectively, than the natural environment in which Cryptococcus species reside.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Copper is a cofactor for multicopper oxidases, which include the ferroxidase Cfo1 for iron uptake and laccase for melanin synthesis.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The link between copper and melanization has also been known for two decades.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, carbonic anhydrases do not affect virulence of Cryptococcus within the host, but may influence its survival on the outer surface (e.g., the skin) of the host and in the natural environment.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Upon entering the host, Cryptococcus is subjected to drastic changes in CO2 levels from 0.0036% (ambient air) to 5%.
In the paper
“In C. gattii, ROS and RNS defense systems are also important for antifungal drug resistance because itraconazole (but not fluconazole) and amphotericin B induce ROS and RNS production, which causes lipid peroxidation and oxidative degradation of lipid membranes (Ferreira et al. 2013).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ferreira et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Several studies comparing the stress management between C. neoformans and C. gattii have revealed both redundant and distinct roles of the diverse signaling pathways.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, the three best-established virulence traits and growth or stress phenotypes are unaffected, and further analysis may enable discoveries about virulence factors operating in Cryptococcus species.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SENSING AND RESPONDING TO ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“inhibition of the calcineurin pathway is fungistatic against the highly virulent C. gattii VGIIa strain R265 at 37 ˚C, whereas it is fungicidal against the less virulent C. gattii VGIIb strain R272 and C. neoformans”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chen et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Comparative microarray analysis revealed MPK1 to be more up-regulated in R265 than in R272 and its deletion caused temperature sensitivity, defects in cell wall integrity, and a reduced production of melanin and capsule”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ngamskulrungroj et al. 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In fact, a key cation transporter, Ena1 (Na þ / ATPase), which plays an essential role in osmotic stress response, survival under alkaline pH conditions and plasma membrane potential, is required for virulence of C. neoformans (Idnurm et al. 2009;Jung et al. 2012).”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Idnurm et al. 2009
- Not checked yetcites Jung et al. 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the trehalose pathway modulates production of melanin and capsule as well as cell wall integrity in C. gattii, but not in C. neoformans.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ngamskulrungroj et al. 2009b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In C. gattii, Sod1 not only counteracts superoxide anions, but also promotes production of virulence factors such as melanin, urease, and phospholipase”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN STRESS RESPONSE
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Narasipura et al. 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accurate identification of the subspecies is not only of taxonomic interest but may be clinically relevant because patients infected by these subspecies could have varying risk factors.”
§ Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the Etiologic Agents of Cryptococcosis > CONCLUDING REMARKS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: There are a number of genetically diverged subspecies within each agent of cryptococcosis.
The paper relies on this without support.
The ability to grow at 37°C is essential for any microbial pathogen to cause invasive disease.
“Although the ability to grow at 37 ˚C is not sufficient by itself to be a mammalian pathogen, it is essential for any microbial pathogen to be able to cause invasive disease.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Iron can be either limiting or in excess in a host depending on health status.
“Iron can be either limiting or in excess in a host depending on health status.”
The paper relies on this without support.
O2 and CO2 vary in concentration in different parts of the body, lower or higher, respectively, than the natural environment in which Cryptococcus species reside.
“O 2 and CO 2 vary in concentration in different parts of the body, lower or higher, respectively, than the natural environment in which Cryptococcus species reside.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are a number of genetically diverged subspecies within each agent of cryptococcosis.
“There are a number of genetically diverged subspecies within each agent of cryptococcosis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Upon entering the host, Cryptococcus is subjected to drastic changes in CO2 levels from 0.0036% (ambient air) to 5%.
“Finally, upon entering the host, Cryptococcus is subjected to drastic changes in CO 2 levels from 0.0036% (ambient air) to 5%.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Melanin and capsule production are two major virulence traits in C. neoformans (Kwon-Chung et al. 2014).”
From Genetic analysis of Hsp90 function in Cryptococcus neoformans highlights key roles in stress tolerance and virulence (2022) · cites this paper as Kwon-Chung et al. 2014
In the citing paper
“immunocompromised individuals are most vulnerable, but there are also reports of cryptococcal infections in immunocompetent hosts4,5”
From Treatment strategies for cryptococcal infection: challenges, advances and future outlook (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
Citations
Cites
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Self-citationThe Genome of the Basidiomycetous Yeast and Human Pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans
Loftus, B., Fung, E., Roncaglia, P., Rowley, D., Amedeo, P., Bruno, D., Vamathevan, J. J., Miranda, M., Anderson, I., Fraser, J. A., et al. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1103773 · Cited by 694
Self-citationNatural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii
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Self-citationUrease as a Virulence Factor in Experimental Cryptococcosis
Cox, G. M., Mukherjee, J., Cole, G. T., Casadevall, A., & Perfect, J. R. (2000) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.68.2.443-448.2000 · Cited by 522
Calcineurin is required for virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans
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- Perfect JR. 2010. Cryptococcus neoformans In Principles and practice of infectious diseases (ed. Mandell GL, et al.), pp. 3287-3303. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia.
- C. neoformans and C. gattii in Cryptococcosis Cite this article as Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2014;4:a019760 2014; doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a019760 Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kwon-Chung, K. J., Fraser, J. A., Doering, T. L., Wang, Z. A., Janbon, G., Idnurm, A., & Bahn, Y.-S.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Institut Pasteur (FR)
- University of Missouri–Kansas City (US)
- Yonsei University (KR)
- Venue
- Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine
- Publisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
- Published
- 2014-07-01
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- a019760-a019760
- ISSN
- 2157-1422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4066639
- OpenAlex
- W2160571905
- Semantic Scholar
- b424d63f850032f2753f4a64cb25fe91c4fe102b
- Cited by
- 531
- References
- 257
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 4
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Research Foundation (109623)
- National Research Foundation of Korea
- National Institutes of Health
- U.S. Public Health Service (87794, 102882, 78795, 109623)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI087794, R01AI102882, R21AI109623, R01AI078795)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Fungal Infections and Studies
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Microbiology › Yeasts and Rust Fungi Studies
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Microbiology › Bacterial Infections and Vaccines
- Keywords
- Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, cryptococcosis, fungal pathogenesis, virulence factors, polysaccharide capsule, melanin, urease activity, meningoencephalitis, AIDS, immunocompetent patient, life cycle, stress response
- MeSH terms
- Cryptococcosis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Enzymes, Genotype, Humans, Life Cycle Stages, Melanins, Terminology as Topic, Phenotype, Stress, Physiological, Signal Transduction, Drug Resistance, Multiple, Fungal, Virulence Factors, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Cryptococcus gattii, Fungal Capsules
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