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Computational Capacity of the Universe
Open accessAbstract
All physical systems register and process information. The laws of physics determine the amount of information that a physical system can register (number of bits) and the number of elementary logic operations that a system can perform (number of ops). The Universe is a physical system. The amount of information that the Universe can register and the number of elementary operations that it can have performed over its history are calculated. The Universe can have performed ${10}^{120}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}\mathrm{ops}$ on ${10}^{90}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}\mathrm{bits}$ ( ${10}^{120}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}\mathrm{bits}$ including gravitational degrees of freedom).
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“We consider Hamiltonians that can be written as a polynomial number of terms, with respect to the system size.”
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“This class of Hamiltonians encompasses a wide range of physical systems, including the electronic structure Hamiltonian of quantum chemistry, the quantum Ising Model, the Heisenberg Model2021, matrices that are well approximated as a sum of n-fold tensor products2223, and more generally any k-sparse Hamiltonian without evident tensor product structure”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Lloyd, S.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lloyd, Seth
- ORCID
- Lloyd, Seth
- Venue
- Physical Review Letters
- Publisher
- American Physical Society (APS)
- Published
- 2002-05-24
- Volume
- 88
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 237901-237901
- ISSN
- 0031-9007 (ISSN-L)
- 1079-7114
- OpenAlex
- W1993466133
- Cited by
- 571
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 8.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Physical Review Letters (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Cosmology and Gravitation Theories
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computational Theory and Mathematics › Computability, Logic, AI Algorithms
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Black Holes and Theoretical Physics
- Keywords
- gravitational degrees of freedom
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