The DOI matches its Crossref record; 36 of the 36 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Computational Capacity of the Universe
Open accessAbstract
All physical systems register and process information. The laws of physics determine the amount of information that a physical system can register (number of bits) and the number of elementary logic operations that a system can perform (number of ops). The Universe is a physical system. The amount of information that the Universe can register and the number of elementary operations that it can have performed over its history are calculated. The Universe can have performed ${10}^{120}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}\mathrm{ops}$ on ${10}^{90}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}\mathrm{bits}$ ( ${10}^{120}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}\mathrm{bits}$ including gravitational degrees of freedom).
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“We consider Hamiltonians that can be written as a polynomial number of terms, with respect to the system size.”
From A variational eigenvalue solver on a photonic quantum processor (2014) · cites this paper as [20]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“This class of Hamiltonians encompasses a wide range of physical systems, including the electronic structure Hamiltonian of quantum chemistry, the quantum Ising Model, the Heisenberg Model2021, matrices that are well approximated as a sum of n-fold tensor products2223, and more generally any k-sparse Hamiltonian without evident tensor product structure”
From A variational eigenvalue solver on a photonic quantum processor (2014) · cites this paper as [20]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“According to Uhlmann's theorem [18], the square root of the fidelity is given by”
From Geometric derivation of the quantum speed limit (2010) · cites this paper as [18]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Susskind, L. (1995) · Journal of Mathematical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.531249 · Cited by 4,085
Lloyd, S. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.273.5278.1073 · Cited by 3,088
Self-citationPrinciples of physical cosmology
(1993) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.31-1499 · Cited by 2,908
M theory as a matrix model: A conjecture
Banks, T., Fischler, W., Shenker, S. H., & Susskind, L. (1997) · Physical Review D · doi:10.1103/physrevd.55.5112 · Cited by 2,748
Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods
Peres, A., & Ballentine, L. E. (1995) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.17946 · Cited by 2,561
Proceedings of the 56th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing
(2024) · doi:10.1145/3618260 · Cited by 1,843
Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology
Linde, A. D. (1987) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.881088 · Cited by 1,805
Demonstration of a Fundamental Quantum Logic Gate
Monroe, C., Meekhof, D. M., King, B. E., Itano, W. M., & Wineland, D. J. (1995) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.75.4714 · Cited by 1,586
Bulk Spin-Resonance Quantum Computation
Gershenfeld, N. A., & Chuang, I. L. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.275.5298.350 · Cited by 1,528
Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology
Linder, C. (1990) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b16971 · Cited by 1,477
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- N. Margolus, 1996, PhysComp96, Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Physics and Computation,
- N. Margolus, 1998, Physica (Amsterdam), 120D, 188
- D. G. Cory, PhysComp96, Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Physics and Computation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 571
Quantifying Shannon's Work Function for Cryptanalytic AttacksPreprint
van Son, R. J. J. H. (2010) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1003.2123
Evolutionary Design in Biology
Wiese, K. C. (2008) · Natural computing series · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74111-4_1 · Cited by 1
Beckwith, A. W. (2018) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2018.43027
Modern Physics and Kashmir Shaivism: The Higgs, Mass, Symmetry and EntropyPreprint
Balasubramanian, S. V. (2015) · viXra
Precise Formulation and Proof of Dirac Large Numbers HypothesisPreprint
Valev, D. T. (2013) · viXra
The Observer Class HypothesisPreprint
Garrett, T. (2011) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1101.2198
Ultimate Intelligence Part II: Physical Measure and Complexity of IntelligencePreprint
Özkural, E. (2015) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1504.03303
A Computational Anthropic Principle: Where is the Hardest Problem in the Multiverse?Preprint
Sivanandam, N. (2010) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1002.2178
Beckwith, A. W. (2011) · Journal of Modern Physics · doi:10.4236/jmp.2011.29118
Classical & quantum dynamics of information and entanglement properties of fermion systems
Zander, C. (2012) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria)
Black Holes—Information Models
Gurevich, I. (2013) · Open Journal of Microphysics · doi:10.4236/ojm.2013.34019
A methodologically naturalist defense of ethical non-naturalism
Graber, A. D. (2013) · doi:10.17077/etd.0ax8qxc0
Beckwith, A. W., & Robertson, G. A. (2010) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.3326277
DIGITAL ORIGIN OF COSMIC INFLATION
Chou, C.-H., & Yu, H.-L. (2010) · Modern Physics Letters A · doi:10.1142/s0217732310033219
Relic Entropy Generation, Relic Gravitons and Relic Neutrinos, and Interaction of Both in CMBR
Beckwith, A. W. (2013) · Universal Journal of Physics and Application · doi:10.13189/ujpa.2013.010301
Beckwith, A. W. (2017) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2017.33037
Topology and Routing in Computational Capacity Evaluation of Ad hoc Networks
Trivedi, M., Shriwastava, S. K., & Purohit, P. K. (2009)
The Accelerating Universe and the Second LawPreprint
Gough, M. P. (2009) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.0906.2656
Intelligent Design and Evolutionary Computation
English, T. M., & Greenwood, G. W. (2008) · Natural computing series · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74111-4_2
Distribution of Environments in Formal Measures of Intelligence
Hibbard, B. (2009) · Artificial General Intelligence · doi:10.2991/agi.2009.7
HOMO DECEPTUS HOW LANGUAGE CREATES ITS OWN REALITY
Bokor, B. (2015) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation)
Orcasitas, J. L., Nicolás, A. A., & Molina, J. F. P. (2010) · Intervención · doi:10.30763/intervencion.2016.13.152
Interpreting Energy as the Rate of Quantum ComputationPreprint
Frank, M. P. (2004) · arXiv (Cornell University)
Relic Entropy Growth and Initial Big Bang Conditions, as a Subset of Quantum Information
Beckwith, A. W. (2016) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2016.23035
Barreiro, J. M., & Pazos, J. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-59904-996-0.ch010
Biology, Mind, and the Outer Reaches of Quantum Computation
Cooper, S. B., & Hodges, A. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511863196.016
Calculating δgtt at Boundary of Start of Planckian Physics Due to 1 Million Relic Black Holes
Beckwith, A. W. (2016) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2017.31005
Initial Mass in Pre-Planckian Space-Timed Defined, and Causal Discontinuity
Beckwith, A. W. (2016) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2017.31002
Gordon, B. L. (2021) · Filozoficzne Aspekty Genezy · doi:10.53763/fag.2014.11.100
Beckwith, A. W. (2017) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2017.31014
Beckwith, A. W. (2018) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2018.42018
Geometria da informação quântica: uma abordagem geral acerca do tempo de evolução
Pires, D. P. (2017) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.76.2017.tde-17032017-104320 · Cited by 1
Universal Theory of General InvariancePreprint
Benowitz, M. P. (2017) · viXra
Beckwith, A. W. (2017) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2017.34056
Beckwith, A. W. (2017) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2017.34047
Herrmann‐Pillath, C. (2013) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781782548362.00014
Quantum speed-up capacity in different types of quantum channels for two-qubit open systems
Wu, W., Liu, X., & Wang, C. (2018) · Chinese Physics B · doi:10.1088/1674-1056/27/6/060302
Thermodynamic reflection of particles by Schwarzschild black holesPreprint
Funkhouser, S. (2008) · arXiv (Cornell University)
Beckwith, A. W. (2018) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2018.44041
Observational and astrophysical cosmology: 1980–2018
Longair, M. S. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.013.10
Cosmological theories before and without einstein
Kragh, H. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.013.1
Entropy Growth in the Early Universe and Confirmation of Initial Big Bang Conditions
Beckwith, A. W. (2009)
Is There Paradox with Infinite Space?
Coule, D. H. (2004) · General Relativity and Gravitation · doi:10.1023/b:gerg.0000038474.55903.3f · Cited by 1
Stranger things: multiverse, string cosmology, physical eschatology
Ćirković, M. M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.013.12
Several routes to determining entropy generation in the early universePreprint
Beckwith, A. W. (2011) · viXra
Bianchi, S. D. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.013.9
Beckwith, A. W. (2013) · viXra
What lies behind the data? How sampling assumptions shape and are shaped by inductive inference
Ransom, K. (2019) · Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide)
The Nature of Information and Its Communication
Torday, J. S., & Miller, W. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-38133-2_6
Kirilyuk, A. P. (2020) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.19061.12006
A Finitist's Manifesto: Do we need to Reformulate the Foundations of Mathematics?Preprint
Lenchner, J. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2009.06485
On Computer Simulation, with Particular Regard to their Application in Contemporary Astrophysics
Grüner, S., & Bartelmann, M. (2020) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria)
A model for massless gravitons in radiation and matter-dominated universes
Cavan, E., Haranas, I. I., & Gkigkitzis, I. (2020) · Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s12036-020-09646-7
Is there paradox with infinite space?Preprint
Coule, D. H. (2004)
Patra, E. A. D. I. (2021) · Türk bilgisayar ve matematik eğitimi dergisi · doi:10.17762/turcomat.v12i2.1145
Beckwith, A. W. (2021) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2021.73045
Our universe may have started by Qubit decoherencePreprint
Dandekar, T. (2021) · Online Publication Service of Würzburg University (Würzburg University) · doi:10.25972/opus-23918
The Informational Conception and the Base of PhysicsPreprint
Shevchenko, S., & Tokarevsky, V. (2021) · viXra · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.32219.08489
Lévy, P. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118601471.biblio
Quantum Speed Limit Time of Topological Qubits Influenced by the Fermionic and Bosonic Environments
Ahmadi, F., Haseli, S., Hadipour, M., Heshmatian, S., Dolatkhah, H., & Salimi, S. (2022) · Brazilian Journal of Physics · doi:10.1007/s13538-022-01092-w
Modulating quantum evolution of moving-qubit by using classical driving
Wang, Q., Yang, J., Liu, R., Zou, H., Mortezapour, A., Long, D., Wang, J., & Ma, Q. (2023) · The European Physical Journal Plus · doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-023-03724-9
Theoretical Studies of Structural and Electronic Properties of Clusters
Springborg, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27282-5_26
Theoretical Studies of Structural, Energetic, and Electronic Properties of Clusters
Springborg, M., Dong, Y., Grigoryan, V. G., Tevekeliyska, V., Alamanova, D., Kasabova, E., Roy, S., Joswig, J., & Asaduzzaman, A. M. (2008) · R. Oldenbourg Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1524/9783486598674.163
Auletta, G. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16649-6_4
Steinhart, E. C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43052-8_4
(2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.002.0004
(2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.002.0002
(2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.002.0005
Hernando, C. (2023) · trilogía Ciencia Tecnología Sociedad · doi:10.22430/21457778.2458
Beckwith, A. W. (2023) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2023.92046
Leo, M. (2023) · Journal of Modern Physics · doi:10.4236/jmp.2023.1410075
Genes Are Tools of Intelligent Cells
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0008
The Biophysical Basis of Cellular Sentience
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0006
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.002.0003
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0009
The Cellular Basis of Consciousness (CBC)
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0001
The Structural and Bioelectrical Basis of Cells
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0005
Anaesthetics and Their Cellular Targets
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0010
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.002.0005
Emergence and Evolution of Cells
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0004
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.003.0012
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.002.0007
Glossary of Technical Terms in the Biological Sciences
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.005.0002
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.002.0004
An Exercise in Lexicography: Defining(?) Consciousness
Reber, A. S., Baluška, F., & Miller, W. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873211.005.0001
Beckwith, A. W. (2024) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2024.101016
Beckwith, A. W. (2024) · Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology · doi:10.4236/jhepgc.2024.101030
Meanings, Their Hierarchy, and Evolution
Mikhailovsky, G. E. (2024) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119865667.ch6
Sagan numbersPreprint
Mendonça, J. R. G. (2012) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1209.2348
Noisy MachinesPreprint
Kewming, M. J. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2005.04808
Anderson, N. G., & Piccinini, G. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191872075.003.0012
The Robust Mapping Account of Implementation
Anderson, N. G., & Piccinini, G. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191872075.003.0006
Anderson, N. G., & Piccinini, G. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191872075.005.0001
Anderson, N. G., & Piccinini, G. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191872075.003.0001
Metadata
- Authors
- Lloyd, S.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lloyd, Seth
- ORCID
- Lloyd, Seth
- Venue
- Physical Review Letters
- Publisher
- American Physical Society (APS)
- Published
- 2002-05-24
- Volume
- 88
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 237901-237901
- ISSN
- 0031-9007 (ISSN-L)
- 1079-7114
- OpenAlex
- W1993466133
- Cited by
- 571
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 8.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Physical Review Letters (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Cosmology and Gravitation Theories
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computational Theory and Mathematics › Computability, Logic, AI Algorithms
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Black Holes and Theoretical Physics
- Keywords
- gravitational degrees of freedom
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
