Secure spread spectrum watermarking for multimedia
Abstract
This paper presents a secure (tamper-resistant) algorithm for watermarking images, and a methodology for digital watermarking that may be generalized to audio, video, and multimedia data. We advocate that a watermark should be constructed as an independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Gaussian random vector that is imperceptibly inserted in a spread-spectrum-like fashion into the perceptually most significant spectral components of the data. We argue that insertion of a watermark under this regime makes the watermark robust to signal processing operations (such as lossy compression, filtering, digital-analog and analog-digital conversion, requantization, etc.), and common geometric transformations (such as cropping, scaling, translation, and rotation) provided that the original image is available and that it can be successfully registered against the transformed watermarked image. In these cases, the watermark detector unambiguously identifies the owner. Further, the use of Gaussian noise, ensures strong resilience to multiple-document, or collusional, attacks. Experimental results are provided to support these claims, along with an exposition of pending open problems.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems
Rivest, R. L., Shamir, A., & Adleman, L. (1983) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/357980.358017 · Cited by 13,012 · see citing works
Huber, P. J. (1981) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/0471725250 · Cited by 7,066 · see citing works
Vector Quantization and Signal Compression
Gersho, A., & Gray, R. M. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3626-0 · Cited by 7,055 · see citing works
Three-dimensional computer vision: a geometric viewpoint
(1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-0357 · Cited by 3,030 · see citing works
Theory of Spread-Spectrum Communications - A Tutorial
Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., & Milstein, L. B. (1982) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcom.1982.1095533 · Cited by 1,376 · see citing works
van Schyndel, R. G., Tirkel, A. Z., & Osborne, C. F. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1994.413536 · Cited by 1,139 · see citing works
Jähne, B. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-21817-4 · Cited by 1,139 · see citing works
Collusion-secure fingerprinting for digital data
Boneh, D., & Shaw, J. (1998) · IEEE Transactions on Information Theory · doi:10.1109/18.705568 · Cited by 980 · see citing works
Signal compression based on models of human perception
Jayant, N. S., Johnston, J. D., & Safranek, R. J. (1993) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.241504 · Cited by 790 · see citing works
Spread-Spectrum Communications
Ellersick, F., Schilling, D. L., Cook, C. E., et al. (1983) · Encyclopedia of Wireless and Mobile Communications · doi:10.1081/e-ewmc2-120043935 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
Bender, W. R., Gruhl, D., & Morimoto, N. (1995) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.205315 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video
Cox, I. J., Kilian, J., Leighton, T., et al. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1996.560429 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Self-citationA secure, robust watermark for multimedia
Cox, I. J., Kilian, J., Leighton, T., & Shamoon, T. G. (1996) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-61996-8_41 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
Self-citationElectronic marking and identification techniques to discourage document copying
Brassil, J., Low, S. H., Maxemchuk, N. F., et al. (1995) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/49.464718 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Cryptology for digital TV broadcasting
Macq, B. M. M., & Quisquater, J.-J. (1995) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.387094 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Watermarking digital images for copyright protection
Ruanaidh, J. J. K. Ó., Dowling, W. J., & Boland, F. (1996) · IEE Proceedings - Vision Image and Signal Processing · doi:10.1049/ip-vis:19960711 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Decision, estimation, and classification: an introduction to pattern recognition and related topics
(1989) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.27-0356 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Collusion-Secure Fingerprinting for Digital Data
Boneh, D., & Shaw, J. (1995) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-44750-4_36 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Embedding robust labels into images for copyright protection
Zhao, J., & Koch, E. (1995) · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Towards Robust and Hidden Image Copyright Labeling
Koch, E., & Zhao, J. (1995) · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Review of watermarking and the importance of perceptual modeling
Cox, I. J., & Miller, M. L. (1997) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.274502 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Self-citationModulation and information hiding in images
Smith, J. R., & Comiskey, B. O. (1996) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-61996-8_42 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Embedding secret information into a dithered multi-level image
Tanaka, K., Nakamura, Y., & Matsui, K. (2002) · IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM) · doi:10.1109/milcom.1990.117416 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Assuring Ownership Rights for Digital Images
Caronni, G. (1995) · Vieweg+Teubner eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-322-91094-3_16 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Electronic marking and identification techniques to discourage document copying
Brassil, J., Low, S. H., Maxemchuk, N. F., et al. (2002) · IEEE Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM) · doi:10.1109/infcom.1994.337544 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Secret-Key Agreement without Public-Key Cryptography
Leighton, T., & Micali, S. M. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-540-48329-2_39 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Dynamic histogram warping of image pairs for constant image brightness
Cox, I. J., Roy, S., & Hingorani, S. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1995.537491 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationCopyright Protection for Multimedia Data
Koch, E., Rindfre, J., & Zhao, J. Y. (1994) · Fraunhofer-Publica (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft) · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Franz, E., Jerichow, A., Möller, S., et al. (1996) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-61996-8_28 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Watermarking document images with bounding box expansion
Brassil, J., & O'Gorman, L. (1996) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-61996-8_43 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Two-dimensional signal processing
Lim, J. S. (1987) · Prentice-Hall, Inc eBooks · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Spread-spectrum communications
Campana, D., & Quinn, P. (1993) · IEEE Potentials · doi:10.1109/45.283815 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Digital Copyright: Who Owns What?.
Weiss, J. (1995) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Wideband coding for uncoordinated multiple access communication
Mowbray, R. S., & Grant, P. M. (1992) · Electronics & Communications Engineering Journal · doi:10.1049/ecej:19920064 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Information Security and Cryptography. Video Stegonography.
Matsui, K. (1995) · The Journal of The Institute of Image Information and Television Engineers · doi:10.3169/itej1978.49.1580 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
THE STATESMAN WHO COULD NOT READ HIS OWN MAIL
Leighton, A. C. (1993) · Cryptologia · doi:10.1080/0161-119391868015 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
34 of the 70 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- kilian, 0, Resistance of watermarked documents to collusional attacks
- braudaway, 1996, Color correct digital watermarking of images
- adelson, 1990, Digital signal encoding and decoding apparatus
- schreiber, 1991, Receiver-compatible enhanced definition television system
- rhoads, 1995, Indentification/authentication coding method and apparatus
- turner, 1989, Digital data security system
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Bender, W. R., Gruhl, D., Morimoto, N., & Lu, A. (1996) · IBM Systems Journal · doi:10.1147/sj.353.0313 · Cited by 2,877 · see citing works
Ni, Z., Shi, Y.-Q., Ansari, N., et al. (2006) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/tcsvt.2006.869964 · Cited by 2,745 · see citing works
Chen, B., & Wornell, G. W. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Information Theory · doi:10.1109/18.923725 · Cited by 2,099 · see citing works
Digital Watermarking and Steganography
(2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-372585-1.x5001-3 · Cited by 1,717 · see citing works
Exploring steganography: Seeing the unseen
Johnson, N. F., & Jajodia, S. (1998) · Computer · doi:10.1109/mc.1998.4655281 · Cited by 1,485 · see citing works
HiDDeN: Hiding Data With Deep Networks
Zhu, J., Kaplan, R., Johnson, J., & Fei-Fei, L. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01267-0_40 · Cited by 1,186 · see citing works
A steganographic method for images by pixel-value differencing
Wu, D.-C., & Tsai, W. (2003) · Pattern Recognition Letters · doi:10.1016/s0167-8655(02)00402-6 · Cited by 1,144 · see citing works
An SVD-based watermarking scheme for protecting rightful ownership
Liu, R., & Tan, T. (2002) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/6046.985560 · Cited by 996 · see citing works
Multimedia data-embedding and watermarking technologies
Swanson, M. D., Kobayashi, M., & Tewfik, A. H. (1998) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.687830 · Cited by 924 · see citing works
Hidden digital watermarks in images
Hsu, C.-T., & Wu, J. (1999) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.736686 · Cited by 857 · see citing works
Image-adaptive watermarking using visual models
Podilchuk, C. I., & Zeng, W. (1998) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/49.668975 · Cited by 849 · see citing works
Watermarking digital image and video data. A state-of-the-art overview
Langelaar, G. C., Setyawan, I., & Lagendijk, R. L. (2000) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/79.879337 · Cited by 849 · see citing works
Digital watermarking: algorithms and applications
Podilchuk, C. I., & Delp, E. J. (2001) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/79.939835 · Cited by 747 · see citing works
A DCT-domain system for robust image watermarking
Barni, M., Bartolini, F., Cappellini, V., et al. (1998) · Signal Processing · doi:10.1016/s0165-1684(98)00015-2 · Cited by 729 · see citing works
Image hiding by optimal LSB substitution and genetic algorithm
Wang, R.-Z., Lin, C., & Lin, J. (2001) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/s0031-3203(00)00015-7 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
Watermarking of uncompressed and compressed video
Hartung, F. H., & Girod, B. (1998) · Signal Processing · doi:10.1016/s0165-1684(98)00011-5 · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Hernandez, J. R., Amado, M., & Pérez‐González, F. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.817598 · Cited by 711 · see citing works
Information-theoretic analysis of information hiding
Moulin, P., & O’Sullivan, J. A. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Information Theory · doi:10.1109/tit.2002.808134 · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Rotation, scale, and translation resilient watermarking for images
Lin, C.-Y., Wu, M. H., Bloom, J. A., Cox, I. J., Miller, M. L., & Lui, Y. M. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.918569 · Cited by 670 · see citing works
Self-citationA survey of digital image watermarking techniques
Potdar, V. M., Han, S., & Chang, E. J. (2005) · doi:10.1109/indin.2005.1560462 · Cited by 641 · see citing works
Perceptual watermarks for digital images and video
Wolfgang, R. B., Podilchuk, C. I., & Delp, E. J. (1999) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.771067 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Spread spectrum image steganography
Marvel, L. M., Boncelet, C., & RETTER, C. T. (1999) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.777088 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Steganalysis using image quality metrics
Avcıbaş, İ., Memon, N. D., & Sankur, B. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2002.807363 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Secret and public key image watermarking schemes for image authentication and ownership verification
Wong, P. W., & Memon, N. D. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.951543 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
A robust image authentication method distinguishing JPEG compression from malicious manipulation
Lin, C., & Chang, S.-F. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/76.905982 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Digital watermarking for telltale tamper proofing and authentication
Kundur, D., & Hatzinakos, D. (1999) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.771070 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Robust audio watermarking in the time domain
Bassia, P., Pitas, I., & Nikolaidis, N. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/6046.923822 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
Robust image watermarking in the spatial domain
Nikolaidis, N., & Pitas, I. (1998) · Signal Processing · doi:10.1016/s0165-1684(98)00017-6 · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Watermarking as communications with side information
Cox, I. J., Miller, M. L., & McKellips, A. L. (1999) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.771068 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
Self-citationDigital watermarking using multiresolution wavelet decomposition
Kundur, D., & Hatzinakos, D. (2002) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp.1998.678149 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Geometrically invariant watermarking using feature points
Bas, P., Chassery, J., & Macq, B. M. M. (2002) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2002.801587 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Digital watermarks for audio signals
Boney, L., Tewfik, A. H., & Hamdy, K. N. (1996) · IEEE International Conference on Multimedia Computing and Systems (ICMCS) · doi:10.1109/mmcs.1996.535015 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Robust audio watermarking using perceptual masking
Swanson, M. D., Zhu, B., Tewfik, A. H., & Boney, L. (1998) · Signal Processing · doi:10.1016/s0165-1684(98)00014-0 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Counterfeiting attacks on oblivious block-wise independent invisible watermarking schemes
Holliman, M. J., & Memon, N. D. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.826780 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
A robust content based digital signature for image authentication
Schneider, M., & Chang, S.-F. (2002) · Proceedings of 3rd IEEE International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1996.560425 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Vleeschouwer, C. D., Delaigle, J.-F., & Macq, B. M. M. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/tmm.2003.809729 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Information Forensics: An Overview of the First Decade
Stamm, M. C., Wu, M., & Liu, K. J. R. (2013) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2013.2260814 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Anti-collusion fingerprinting for multimedia
Trappe, W. K., Wu, M. H., Wang, Z. J., & Liu, K. J. R. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/tsp.2003.809378 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
A wavelet-based watermarking algorithm for ownership verification of digital images
Wang, Y., Doherty, J. F., & Dyck, R. E. V. (2002) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.982816 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Data hiding in binary image for authentication and annotation
Wu, M. H., & Liu, B. (2004) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/tmm.2004.830814 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
High capacity image steganographic model
Lee, Y. K., & Chen, L. H. (2000) · IEE Proceedings - Vision Image and Signal Processing · doi:10.1049/ip-vis:20000341 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Multipurpose watermarking for image authentication and protection
Lu, C.-S., & Liao, H.-Y. M. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.951542 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
The First 50 Years of Electronic Watermarking
Cox, I. J., & Miller, M. L. (2002) · EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing · doi:10.1155/s1110865702000525 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Self-citationScalar costa scheme for information embedding
Eggers, J. J., Bäuml, R., Tzschoppe, R., et al. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/tsp.2003.809366 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Shi, Y. Q. (2005) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-31805-7_1 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
A DWT-DFT composite watermarking scheme robust to both affine transform and JPEG compression
Kang, X., Huang, J., Shi, Y. Q., et al. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/tcsvt.2003.815957 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Steganalysis of Images Created Using Current Steganography Software
Johnson, N. F., & Jajodia, S. (1998) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-49380-8_19 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Wavelet Tree Quantization for Copyright Protection Watermarking
Wang, S., & Lin, Y. (2004) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2004.823822 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Attacks on digital watermarks: classification, estimation based attacks, and benchmarks
Voloshynovskiy, S., Pereira, S., Pun, T., Eggers, J. J., & Su, J. K. (2001) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/35.940053 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Robust DWT-SVD domain image watermarking
Ganic, E., & Eskicioğlu, A. M. (2004) · doi:10.1145/1022431.1022461 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
A Stochastic Approach to Content Adaptive Digital Image Watermarking
Voloshynovskiy, S., Herrigel, A., Baumgartner, N., et al. (2000) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/10719724_16 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Transparent robust image watermarking
Swanson, M. D., Zhu, B. B., & Tewfik, A. H. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1996.560421 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Praun, E., Hoppe, H., & Finkelstein, A. (1999) · ACM SIGGRAPH Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH) · doi:10.1145/311535.311540 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
A buyer-seller watermarking protocol
Memon, N. D., & Wong, P. W. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.913598 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Hiding digital watermarks using multiresolution wavelet transform
Hsieh, M.-S., Tseng, D.-C., & Huang, Y.-H. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics · doi:10.1109/41.954550 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Multiresolution scene-based video watermarking using perceptual models
Swanson, M. D., Zhu, B. B., & Tewfik, A. H. (1998) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/49.668976 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Moulin, P., & Koetter, R. (2005) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2005.859599 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Digital signature of color images using amplitude modulation
Kutter, M., Jordan, F. D., & Bossen, F. (1997) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.263442 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Chor, B., Fiat, A., Naor, M., & Benny Pinkas, B. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Information Theory · doi:10.1109/18.841169 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Optimal differential energy watermarking of DCT encoded images and video
Langelaar, G. C., & Lagendijk, R. L. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.892451 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Robust and Secure Image Hashing via Non-Negative Matrix Factorizations
Monga, V., & Mihcak, M. K. (2007) · IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security · doi:10.1109/tifs.2007.902670 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
An Overview of Digital Video Watermarking
Asikuzzaman, M., & Pickering, M. R. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/tcsvt.2017.2712162 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Dual watermark for image tamper detection and recovery
Lee, T.-Y., & Lin, S. D. (2008) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2008.05.003 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Optimized gray-scale image watermarking using DWT–SVD and Firefly Algorithm
Mishra, A., Agarwal, C., Sharma, A., & Bedi, P. (2014) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2014.06.011 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Watermarking three-dimensional polygonal models through geometric and topological modifications
Ohbuchi, R., Masuda, H., & Aono, M. (1998) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/49.668977 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
A robust digital image watermarking method using wavelet-based fusion
Kundur, D., & Hatzinakos, D. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1997.647970 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Circularly symmetric watermark embedding in 2-D DFT domain
Solachidis, V., & Pitas, L. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.967401 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Jia, Z., Fang, H., & Zhang, W. (2021) · ACM International Conference on Multimedia (ACM MM) · doi:10.1145/3474085.3475324 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Digital Watermarking Robust to Geometric Distortions
Dong, P., Brankov, J. G., Galatsanos, N. P., et al. (2005) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-35270-6_8 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Embedding image watermarks in dc components
Huang, J., Shi, Y., & Shi, Y. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/76.867936 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
A new wavelet-based scheme for watermarking images
Dugad, R., Ratakonda, K., & Ahuja, N. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1998.723406 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Attack modelling: towards a second generation watermarking benchmark
Voloshynovskiy, S., Pereira, S., Iquise, V., et al. (2001) · Signal Processing · doi:10.1016/s0165-1684(01)00039-1 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Digital watermarking of color images using amplitude modulation
Kutter, M., Jordan, F. D., & Bossen, F. (1998) · Journal of Electronic Imaging · doi:10.1117/1.482648 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Protecting digital media content
Memon, N. D., & Wong, P. W. (1998) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/278476.278485 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Rouhani, B. D., Chen, H., & Koushanfar, F. (2019) · International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) · doi:10.1145/3297858.3304051 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Watermarking techniques for intellectual property protection
Kahng, A. B., Lach, J., Mangione-Smith, W. H., et al. (1998) · Proceedings - ACM IEEE Design Automation Conference · doi:10.1145/277044.277240 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Multiresolution watermarking for digital images
Hsu, C.-T., & Wu, J. (1998) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II Analog and Digital Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/82.718818 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Watermarking applications and their properties
Cox, I. J., Miller, M. L., & Bloom, J. A. (2002) · International Conference on Information Technology: Coding and Computing (ITCC) · doi:10.1109/itcc.2000.844175 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Self-citationColor Image Watermarking Using Multidimensional Fourier Transforms
Tsui, T. K., Zhang, X.-P. S., & Androutsos, D. (2008) · IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security · doi:10.1109/tifs.2007.916275 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Robust Image Watermarking Theories and Techniques: A Review
Hai, T., Li, C., Zain, J. M., et al. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research and Technology · doi:10.1016/s1665-6423(14)71612-8 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
A novel blind robust image watermarking in DCT domain using inter-block coefficient correlation
Das, C., Panigrahi, S., Sharma, V. K., et al. (2013) · AEU - International Journal of Electronics and Communications · doi:10.1016/j.aeue.2013.08.018 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Spread spectrum watermarking: malicious attacks and counterattacks
Hartung, F. H., Su, J. K., & Girod, B. (1999) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.344665 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
An Efficient Watermarking Method Based on Significant Difference of Wavelet Coefficient Quantization
Lin, W., Horng, S., Kao, T., et al. (2008) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/tmm.2008.922795 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Video fingerprinting and encryption principles for digital rights management
Kundur, D., & KARTHIK, K. (2004) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2004.827356 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Audio watermarking: features, applications and algorithms
Arnold, M. (2000) · IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME) · doi:10.1109/icme.2000.871531 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Watermarking and authentication of quantum images based on restricted geometric transformations
Iliyasu, A. M., Le, P. Q., Dong, F., & Hirota, K. (2011) · Information Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ins.2011.09.028 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
An Oblivious Watermarking for 3-D Polygonal Meshes Using Distribution of Vertex Norms
Cho, J.-W., Prost, R., & Jung, H.-Y. (2006) · IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/tsp.2006.882111 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Some general methods for tampering with watermarks
Cox, I. J., & Linnartz, J. M. G. (1998) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/49.668980 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Self-citationCollusion-resistant fingerprinting for multimedia
Wu, M. H., Trappe, W. K., Wang, Z. J., & Liu, K. J. R. (2004) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/msp.2004.1276103 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Watermaking three-dimensional polygonal models
Ohbuchi, R., Masuda, H., & Aono, M. (1997) · ACM International Conference on Multimedia (ACM MM) · doi:10.1145/266180.266377 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Reversible Image Steganography Scheme Based on a U-Net Structure
Duan, X., Jia, K., Li, B., Guo, D., Zhang, E., & Qin, C. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2891247 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Audio Signal Processing and Coding
Spanias, A., Painter, T., & Atti, V. (2005) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0470041978 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
A survey of watermarking techniques applied to multimedia
Lee, S.-J., & Jung, S. (2002) · IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE) · doi:10.1109/isie.2001.931796 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Advances in Digital Video Content Protection
Lin, E. I., Eskicioğlu, A. M., Lagendijk, R. L., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2004.839623 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Data hiding in image and video .I. Fundamental issues and solutions
Wu, M. H., & Liu, B. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2003.810588 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Asymptotically optimal detection for additive watermarking in the DCT and DWT domains
Nikolaidis, A., & Pitas, I. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2003.810586 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Cocktail watermarking for digital image protection
Liao, H.-Y. M., Sze, C.-J., Huang, S.-K., et al. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/6046.890056 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
The use of watermarks in the protection of digital multimedia products
Voyatzis, G., & Pitas, I. (1999) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.771072 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Toward Robust Logo Watermarking Using Multiresolution Image Fusion Principles
Kundur, D., & Hatzinakos, D. (2004) · IEEE Transactions on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/tmm.2003.819747 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Modified patchwork algorithm: a novel audio watermarking scheme
Yeo, I.-K., & Kim, H. J. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio Processing · doi:10.1109/tsa.2003.812145 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cox, I. J., Kilian, J., Leighton, F. T., & Shamoon, T.
- Affiliations
- NEC (Japan) (JP)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- ORCID
- Cox, I.J.
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Image Processing
- Published
- 1997-12
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1673-1687
- ISSN
- 1057-7149 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-0042
- OpenAlex
- W2116467012
- Semantic Scholar
- a5eaa0b77d774745409499be2a2f16c506156161
- Cited by
- 5,299
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 112 · 2018: 132 · 2017: 160 · 2016: 168 · 2015: 201 · 2014: 211 · 2013: 240 · 2012: 289
- FWCI
- 98.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Image Processing (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Digital Media Forensic Detection
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Data Compression Techniques
- Keywords
- digital watermarking, spread spectrum watermarking, tamper resistance, Gaussian random vectors, image watermarking, watermark robustness, lossy compression, geometric transformations, image registration
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
