Cyberbullying Detection With Fairness Constraints
Open accessAbstract
Cyberbullying is a widespread adverse phenomenon among online social interactions in today's digital society. While numerous computational studies focus on enhancing the cyberbullying detection performance of machine learning algorithms, proposed models tend to carry and reinforce unintended social biases. In this study, we try to answer the research question of “Can we mitigate the unintended bias of cyberbullying detection models by guiding the model training with fairness constraints?” For this purpose, we propose a model training scheme that can employ fairness constraints and validate our approach with different datasets. We demonstrate that various types of unintended biases can be successfully mitigated without impairing the model quality. We believe our work contributes to the pursuit of unbiased, transparent, and ethical machine learning solutions for cyber-social health.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Twitter offers real-time capabilities, allowing researchers to analyze trends and patterns in cyberbullying characteristics as they occur.
“Additionally, Twitter offers real-time capabilities, allowing researchers to analyze trends and patterns in cyberbullying characteristics as they occur.”
From Cyberbullying detection: Exploring datasets, technologies, and approaches on social media platforms (2026) · cites this paper as [130]
Integrating textual, contextual, emotional, social attributes, and sentiment characteristics with conventional text features can elevate cyberbullying detection efficiency.
“Integrating textual, contextual, emotional, social attributes, and sentiment characteristics together with conventional text features can elevate cyberbullying”
From Cyberbullying detection: Exploring datasets, technologies, and approaches on social media platforms (2026) · cites this paper as [130]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding
Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/n19-1423 · Cited by 48,293 · see citing works
Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks
Reimers, N., & Gurevych, I. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/d19-1410 · Cited by 12,778 · see citing works
Chicco, D., & Jurman, G. (2020) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/s12864-019-6413-7 · Cited by 6,143 · cited 2× · see citing works
“As accuracy, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, and F1 score may lead to misleading conclusions on imbalanced datasets (such as here), we evaluate our models with Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) which does not exhibit such drawback [60], [61], [62], [63].”
BackgroundMethodNote on the Sampling Error of the Difference Between Correlated Proportions or Percentages
McNemar, Q. (1947) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02295996 · Cited by 4,754 · see citing works
Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2010.494133 · Cited by 2,078 · see citing works
Measuring and Mitigating Unintended Bias in Text Classification
Dixon, L., Li, J., Sorensen, J., Thain, N., & Vasserman, L. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society · doi:10.1145/3278721.3278729 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
StereoSet: Measuring stereotypical bias in pretrained language models
Nadeem, M., Bethke, A., & Reddy, S. (2021) · Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/2021.acl-long.416 · Cited by 643 · see citing works
Ex Machina: Personal Attacks Seen at Scale
Wulczyn, E., Thain, N., & Dixon, L. (2017) · Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web · doi:10.1145/3038912.3052591 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Self-harm, suicidal behaviours, and cyberbullying in children and young people: systematic review
John, A., Glendenning, A. C., Marchant, A., Montgomery, P., Stewart, A., Wood, S., Lloyd, K., & Hawton, K. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.9044 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Racial Bias in Hate Speech and Abusive Language Detection Datasets
Davidson, T., Bhattacharya, D., & Weber, I. (2019) · Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Abusive Language Online · doi:10.18653/v1/w19-3504 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Nuanced Metrics for Measuring Unintended Bias with Real Data for Text Classification
Borkan, D., Dixon, L., Sorensen, J. S., Thain, N., & Vasserman, L. (2019) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3308560.3317593 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Reducing Gender Bias in Abusive Language Detection
Park, J. H., Shin, J., & Fung, P. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing · doi:10.18653/v1/d18-1302 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Automatic cyberbullying detection: A systematic review
Rosa, H., Pereira, N., Ribeiro, R., Ferreira, P. C., Carvalho, J. P., Oliveira, S., Coheur, L., Paulino, P., Veiga Simão, A. M., & Trancoso, I. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.021 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Approaches to automated detection of cyberbullying: A survey
Salawu, S., He, Y., & Lumsden, J. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2017.2761757 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Stereotypical Bias Removal for Hate Speech Detection Task using Knowledge-based Generalizations
Badjatiya, P., Gupta, M., & Varma, V. (2019) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3308558.3313504 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Unintended Bias in Misogyny Detection
Nozza, D., Volpetti, C., & Fersini, E. (2019) · IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence · doi:10.1145/3350546.3352512 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Multilingual Twitter Corpus and Baselines for Evaluating Demographic Bias in Hate Speech RecognitionPreprint
Huang, X., Xing, L., Dernoncourt, F., & Paul, M. J. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2002.10361 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Kennedy, B., Atari, M., Davani, A. M., et al. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hqjxn · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Two-Player Games for Efficient Non-Convex Constrained OptimizationPreprint
Cotter, A., Jiang, H., & Sridharan, K. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1804.06500 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Language (Technology) is Power: A Critical Survey of “Bias” in NLP
Blodgett, S. L., Barocas, S., Daumé III, H., & Wallach, H. (2020) · Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.18653/v1/2020.acl-main.485 · Cited by 1,050 · see citing works
“…Ruane et al. (2019); Sap et al. (2019); Sheng et al. (2019); Sun et al. (2019); Sweeney and Najafian (2019); Vaidya et al. (2019); Gaut et al. (2020); Gencoglu (2020); Hovy et al. (2020); Hutchinson et al. (2020); Kim et al. (2020); Peng et al. (2020); Rios (2020); Sap et al. (2020); Shah et al.…”
Confronting Abusive Language Online: A Survey from the Ethical and Human Rights Perspective
Kiritchenko, S., Nejadgholi, I., & Fraser, K. (2021) · Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research · doi:10.1613/jair.1.12590 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Offensive, aggressive, and hate speech analysis: From data-centric to human-centered approach
Kocoń, J., Figas, A., Gruza, M., Puchalska, D., Kajdanowicz, T., & Kazienko, P. (2021) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102643 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
A Review on Deep-Learning-Based Cyberbullying Detection
Hasan, M. T., Hossain, M. A. E., Mukta, M. S. H., Akter, A., Ahmed, M., & Islam, S. (2023) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi15050179 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“…[112], Comments and Toxicity [156], Multilingual Tweets and Hate speech [157], Wikipedia talk page [158], Post of Social Network platform Gab [159,160] Twitter [2,75,115,162], Bully, Sentiment, Emotion and Sarcasm from Twitter and Reddit [124], Social media content[68,115,163], Twitter and…”
BackgroundRecipes for Safety in Open-domain ChatbotsPreprint
Xu, J., Ju, D., Li, M., Boureau, Y.-L., Weston, J., & Dinan, E. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2010.07079 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
A Multichannel Deep Learning Framework for Cyberbullying Detection on Social Media
Alotaibi, M., Alotaibi, B., & Razaque, A. (2021) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics10212664 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Is Your Toxicity My Toxicity? Exploring the Impact of Rater Identity on Toxicity Annotation
Goyal, N., Kivlichan, I. D., Rosen, R., & Vasserman, L. (2022) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3555088 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Czarnowska, P., Vyas, Y., & Shah, K. (2021) · Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/tacl_a_00425 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Sousa, S., & Kern, R. (2022) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-022-10204-6 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
The Role of Explainable AI in the Research Field of AI Ethics
Vainio-Pekka, H., Agbese, M., Jantunen, M., Vakkuri, V., Mikkonen, T., Rousi, R. A., & Abrahamsson, P. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/3599974 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Session-based cyberbullying detection in social media: A survey
Yi, P., & Zubiaga, A. (2023) · Online Social Networks and Media · doi:10.1016/j.osnem.2023.100250 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
A Review of Machine Learning Techniques in Cyberbullying Detection
Sultan, D., Omarov, B. S., Kozhamkulova, Z., Kazbekova, G., Алимжанова, Л. М., Dautbayeva, A., Zholdassov, Y., & Abdrakhmanov, R. (2022) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2023.033682 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Anticipating Safety Issues in E2E Conversational AI: Framework and Tooling
Dinan, E., Abercrombie, G., Bergman, A. S., Spruit, S., Hovy, D., Boureau, Y.-L., & Rieser, V. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2107.03451 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Arif, M. (2021) · Journal of Information Security and Cybercrimes Research · doi:10.26735/gbtv9013 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Cyberbullying Detection using Machine Learning and Deep Learning
Alabdulwahab, A., Haq, M. A., & Alshehri, M. S. (2023) · International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications · doi:10.14569/ijacsa.2023.0141045 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Mitigating Bias in Session-based Cyberbullying Detection: A Non-Compromising Approach
Cheng, L., Mosallanezhad, A., Silva, Y. N., Hall, D. L., & Liu, H. (2021) · doi:10.18653/v1/2021.acl-long.168 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Large-Scale, Language-Agnostic Discourse Classification of Tweets During COVID-19
Gencoglu, O. (2020) · Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction · doi:10.3390/make2040032 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationProTect: a hybrid deep learning model for proactive detection of cyberbullying on social media
Harshitha, T., Prabu, M., Suganya, E., Sountharrajan, S., Bavirisetti, D. P., Gadde, N., & Uppu, L. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2024.1269366 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Dewani, A., Memon, M. A., & Bhatti, S. (2021) · 3C TIC Cuadernos de desarrollo aplicados a las TIC · doi:10.17993/3ctic.2021.102.101-121 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Advanced NLP Framework for Text Processing
Praveen Gujjar, J., Kumar, H. R. P., & Prasad, M. S. G. (2023) · International Conference on Information Systems and Computer Networks (ISCON) · doi:10.1109/iscon57294.2023.10112058 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Chinivar, S., Roopa, M. S., Arunalatha, J. S., & Venugopal, K. R. (2022) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2022.100544 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Detection of Harassment Type of Cyberbullying: A Dictionary of Approach Words and Its Impact
Mahbub, S., Pardede, E., & Kayes, A. S. M. (2021) · Security and Communication Networks · doi:10.1155/2021/5594175 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
A transfer learning approach for detecting offensive and hate speech on social media platforms
Priyadarshini, I., Sahu, S., & Kumar, R. (2023) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-023-14481-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Fetahi, E., Susuri, A., Hamiti, M., Kastrati, Z., Canhasi, E., & Misini, A. (2025) · Social Network Analysis and Mining · doi:10.1007/s13278-025-01497-w · Cited by 19 · see citing works
End-To-End Bias Mitigation: Removing Gender Bias in Deep Learning
Feldman, T., & Peake, A. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2104.02532 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Guiding the Release of Safer E2E Conversational AI through Value Sensitive Design
Bergman, A. S., Abercrombie, G., Spruit, S. L., Hovy, D., Dinan, E., Boureau, Y.-L., & Rieser, V. (2022) · Annual Meeting of the Special Interest Group on Discourse and Dialogue · doi:10.18653/v1/2022.sigdial-1.4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cyberbullying detection: Exploring datasets, technologies, and approaches on social media platforms
Philipo, A. G., Sarwatt, D. S., Ding, J., Daneshmand, M., & Ning, H. (2026) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3785654 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
CaML: Carbon Footprinting of Household Products with Zero-Shot Semantic Text Similarity
Balaji, B., Vunnava, V. S. G., Guest, G., & Kramer, J. (2023) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3543507.3583882 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Woo, W. H., Chua, H. N., & Gan, M. F. (2023) · International Journal on Perceptive and Cognitive Computing · doi:10.31436/ijpcc.v9i1.374 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Natural language processing using text augmentation for chatbot
Praveen Gujjar, J., & R, P. K. H. (2022) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Data Engineering (AIDE) · doi:10.1109/aide57180.2022.10060406 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Smart Cyber Victimization Discovery on Twitter
Shoeibi, N., Shoeibi, N., Julián, V., Ossowskí, S., Arrieta, A. G., & Chamoso, P. (2021) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78901-5_25 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bias Mitigation for Toxicity Detection via Sequential Decisions
Cheng, L., Mosallanezhad, A., Silva, Y. N., Hall, D. L., & Liu, H. (2022) · Proceedings of the 45th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3477495.3531945 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Khapre, S., Mersha, M. A., Shakil, H., Baruah, J., & Kalita, J. K. (2025) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2025.129832 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Towards Generalised and Incremental Bias Mitigation in Personality Computing
Jiang, J., Manoranjan, V., Salam, H., & Çeliktutan, O. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2024.3409830 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Sentiment Analysis and Deep Learning Based Cyber Bullying Detection in Twitter Dataset
Sherly, T. T., & Jeetha, B. R. (2021) · International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) · doi:10.35940/ijrte.d6511.1110421 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Review of Machine Learning Models in Cyberbullying Detection Problem
Toktarova, A., Sultan, D., & Azhibekova, Z. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Smart Information Systems and Technologies (SIST) · doi:10.1109/sist61555.2024.10629223 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Prathaban, B. P., Vaishnavi, T., Ramesh, A. P., Sujaritha, M., Rama, R. S., & Jeffin Gracewell, J. (2024) · International Journal of Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s41870-024-02350-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cyberbullying Detection in Social Media with Multimodal Data Using Transfer Learning
Valliyammai, C., Raaj, S. M., Athish, B. L., & Kumar, J. K. (2024) · IEEE International Women in Engineering (WIE) Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (WIECON-ECE) · doi:10.1109/wiecon-ece64149.2024.10914937 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evangeline, S. I. (2025) · Advances in social networking and online communities book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0543-1.ch011 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
ID-XCB: Data-Independent Debiasing for Fair and Accurate Transformer-Based Cyberbullying Detection
Yi, P., & Zubiaga, A. (2025) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v19i1.35924 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Generalised Bias Mitigation for Personality Computing
Jiang, J., Manoranjan, V., Salam, H., & Çeliktutan, O. (2023) · International Workshop on Multimodal and Responsible Affective Computing (MRAC) · doi:10.1145/3607865.3616175 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cyberbullying Detection Using BiLSTM Model
Lekshmi, M. S., Shaji, A. M., & Amrita, S. K. (2024) · Signals and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47942-7_29 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
An Intelligent System for Cyberbullying Detection in Facebook Interactions
Sabrin, S., Akter, M., Rouien, M. R., & Ahmed, T. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Quantum Photonics, Artificial Intelligence & Networking (QPAIN) · doi:10.1109/qpain66474.2025.11171655 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
An Analysis of Cyberbullying in Text Data using Deep Learning Algorithms
Dharani, M. K. (2024) · Communications on Applied Nonlinear Analysis · doi:10.52783/cana.v31.731 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
On the Basis of Sex: A Review of Gender Bias in Machine Learning Applications.Preprint
Feldman, T., & Peake, A. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University)
#ContextMatters: Advantages and Limitations of Using Machine Learning to Support Women in PoliticsPreprint
Comer, J., Work, S., Mathewson, K. W., Cuthbertson, L., & Machin, K. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2110.00116 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cultural Violence and Peace Interventions in Social Media
Kaufhold, M., Haunschild, J., & Reuter, C. (2024) · Technology, peace and security · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_18
A survey on cyber bulling predictive analysis on Twitter data with multi-model supervised technique
Sakthivel, K., Palani, N., Shanmugam, R., & Govindarajan, S. (2025) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0260530
Kumari, J. J. J., & Thangam, S. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-2282-7.ch008
Mandinyenya, G., & Malele, V. (2026) · Latin-American Journal of Computing · doi:10.33333/lajc.vol13n1.02
A Multichannel Deep Learning Framework for Cyberbullying Detection on Social Media
Alotaibi, M., Alotaibi, B., & Razaque, A. (2021) · doi:10.20944/preprints202110.0070.v1 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“Although traditional NLP techniques have become highly successful in detecting social media cyberbullying, there are still some challenges that need to be addressed: the short text allowed by social media platforms, imbalance between aggressive and nonaggressive comments, natural language ambiguity, and excessive use…”
Background
- Authors
- Gencoglu, O.
- Affiliations
- Tampere University (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Gencoglu, Oguzhan
- ORCID
- Gencoglu, Oguzhan
- Venue
- IEEE Internet Computing
- Published
- 2021-01-01
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 20-29
- ISSN
- 1089-7801 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-0131
- OpenAlex
- W3026016891
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 3.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- Locations
- IEEE Internet Computing (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Keywords
- cyberbullying detection, fairness constraints, algorithmic bias, online social interaction, model training
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review