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Safe for Generations to Come: Considerations of Safety for Millimeter Waves in Wireless Communications
Open accessAbstract
With the increasing demand for higher data rates and more reliable service capabilities for wireless devices, wireless service providers are facing an unprecedented challenge to overcome a global bandwidth shortage. Early global activities on beyond fourth-generation (B4G) and fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication systems suggest that millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies are very promising for future wireless communication networks due to the massive amount of raw bandwidth and potential multigigabit-per-second (Gb/s) data rates [1]?[3]. Both industry and academia have begun the exploration of the untapped mmWave frequency spectrum for future broadband mobile communication networks. In April 2014, the Brooklyn 5G Summit [4], sponsored by Nokia and the New York University (NYU) WIRELESS research center, drew global attention to mmWave communications and channel modeling. In July 2014, the IEEE 802.11 next-generation 60-GHz study group was formed to increase the data rates to over 20 Gb/s in the unlicensed 60-GHz frequency band while maintaining backward compatibility with the emerging IEEE 802.11ad wireless local area network (WLAN) standard [5].
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“Previous reviews have reported studies investigating frequencies above 6 GHz that show effects although many of the reported effects occurred at levels greater than the ICNIRP guidelines [1, 8].”
From 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
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“SAR values much higher than the ICNIRP guidelines are certainly capable of producing significant temperature rise and are far beyond the levels expected for 5 G telecommunication devices [1].”
From 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
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“The use of low-level (less than 1nW/cm(2)) radiation in mmWave airport security scanners throughout the world on thousands of travelers is performed daily under the widely accepted view that the only potential direct biological effect of the nonionizing radiation in this band is heating [11].”
Cutaneous microwave injury. A report of two cases
Brodkin, R. H., & Bleiberg, J. (1973) · Acta Dermato Venereologica · doi:10.2340/00015555535052 · Cited by 17
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“Cases of accidental overexposure have been reported in the literature from faulty microwave ovens operating at 2,450 MHz [21], [22].”
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Rosenthal, S. W. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 17
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Zilberti, L., Arduino, A., Bottauscio, O., & Chiampi, M. (2014) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.21842 · Cited by 16 · cited 1×
“[76], [77] reported on how the uncertainty and variability of the electric and thermal properties of tissues could affect the estimation of temperature elevation produced during mmWave exposures using a 1-D three-layer human skin model.”
Bioelectrical Brain Activity in Workers Exposed to Electromagnetic Fields
Bielski, J. (1994) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb38945.x · Cited by 16 · cited 1×
“One can speculate that these more conservative regulations stem from nonspecific health problems (such as headaches, fatigue, irritability, sleep disorders, and dizziness) that were reported in the medical literature from Russia and China based on low-level exposure studies [31].”
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Theoretical Analysis for Temperature Elevation of Human Body Due to Millimeter Wave Exposure
Kanezaki, A., Watanabe, S., Hirata, A., & Shirai, H. (2008) · Cairo International Biomedical Engineering Conference · doi:10.1109/cibec.2008.4786116 · Cited by 14 · cited 1×
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Numerical modeling of heat and mass transfer in the human eye under millimeter wave exposure
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Numerical Model of Heat Transfer in the Rabbit Eye Exposed to 60-GHz Millimeter Wave Radiation
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“[89] reported the possibility of nonthermal bioeffects at 94 GHz on skeletal muscle.”
A model to analyze the skin heating produced by millimeter and submillimeter electromagnetic waves
Zilberti, L., Arduino, A., Bottauscio, O., & Chiampi, M. (2013) · International Conference on Electromagnetics in Advanced Applications (ICEAA) · doi:10.1109/iceaa.2013.6632368 · Cited by 6 · cited 3×
“Due to the 1-D nature of the model, the temperature in each homogeneous biological layer can be described using the 1-D version of the bioheat transfer equation given by [76]”
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Sorted by citations
Next generation 5G wireless networks: a comprehensive survey
Agiwal, M., Roy, A., & Saxena, N. (2016) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2016.2532458 · Cited by 3,444
“Nonionizing and thermal characteristic of mm-waves for safety concerns is analyzed in [66].”
BackgroundRappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2921522 · Cited by 2,617
“…includes ultraviolet, x-rays, galactic radiation, and gamma-rays, is dangerous since it is known to have sufficiently high particle energy to dislodge electrons and create free-radicals that can lead to cancer [11], [12] and is believed to be a major health risk for interplanetary travel [12], [13].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationModeling and Analyzing Millimeter Wave Cellular Systems
Andrews, J. G., Bai, T., Kulkarni, M. N., Alkhateeb, A., Gupta, A. K., & Heath, R. W. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2016.2618794 · Cited by 799
“The biological impact of mmWave radiation has also been further studied in [50] and [51].”
BackgroundMillimeter-Wave Massive MIMO Communication for Future Wireless Systems: A Survey
Busari, S. A., Huq, K. M. S., Mumtaz, S., Dai, L., & Rodríguez, J. (2017) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2017.2787460 · Cited by 763
“[212] concluded that both the eyes and the skin”
BackgroundHemadeh, I., Satyanarayana, K., El‐Hajjar, M., & Hanzo, L. (2017) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2017.2783541 · Cited by 715
Metadata
- Authors
- Wu, T., Rappaport, T. S., & Collins, C. M.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- NYU Langone Health (US)
- Venue
- IEEE Microwave Magazine
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 65-84
- ISSN
- 1527-3342 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4629874
- OpenAlex
- W2029468290
- Cited by
- 243
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 10.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- IEEE Microwave Magazine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (P41EB017183)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Effects
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Microwave Engineering and Waveguides
- Keywords
- millimeter-wave communication, 60 GHz, IEEE 802.11ad, 5G, unlicensed spectrum, wireless local area networks, data rate requirements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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