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Safe for Generations to Come: Considerations of Safety for Millimeter Waves in Wireless Communications
Open accessAbstract
With the increasing demand for higher data rates and more reliable service capabilities for wireless devices, wireless service providers are facing an unprecedented challenge to overcome a global bandwidth shortage. Early global activities on beyond fourth-generation (B4G) and fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication systems suggest that millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies are very promising for future wireless communication networks due to the massive amount of raw bandwidth and potential multigigabit-per-second (Gb/s) data rates [1]?[3]. Both industry and academia have begun the exploration of the untapped mmWave frequency spectrum for future broadband mobile communication networks. In April 2014, the Brooklyn 5G Summit [4], sponsored by Nokia and the New York University (NYU) WIRELESS research center, drew global attention to mmWave communications and channel modeling. In July 2014, the IEEE 802.11 next-generation 60-GHz study group was formed to increase the data rates to over 20 Gb/s in the unlicensed 60-GHz frequency band while maintaining backward compatibility with the emerging IEEE 802.11ad wireless local area network (WLAN) standard [5].
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“Previous reviews have reported studies investigating frequencies above 6 GHz that show effects although many of the reported effects occurred at levels greater than the ICNIRP guidelines [1, 8].”
From 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
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“SAR values much higher than the ICNIRP guidelines are certainly capable of producing significant temperature rise and are far beyond the levels expected for 5 G telecommunication devices [1].”
From 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
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“84 of the 88 studies reported PD values at or below the occupational 6-min average reference levels for local exposures, which ranges from 200W/m2 at 6 GHz, dropping down to 100W/m2 at 300 GHz [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialHuman Electromagnetic Field Exposure in 5G at 28 GHz
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“The FCC suggests PD as a metric measuring the human exposure to EMF generated by devices operating at frequencies higher than 6 GHz [12], whereas a recent study suggested that a guideline defined in PD is not efficient to determine the impacts on health issues especially when devices are operating in a very close prox…”
BackgroundMethodE-Health applications over 5G networks: challenges and state of the art
Selem, E., Fatehy, M., & El-Kader, S. M. A. (2019) · International Conference on Advanced Control Circuits and Systems (ACCS) & International Conference on New Paradigms in Electronics & Information Technology (PEIT) · doi:10.1109/accs-peit48329.2019.9062841 · Cited by 25
“The limited-range of mm-Wave has a significant effect on enhancing the WBAN security [39].”
BackgroundFrequency Matters: Comparative Analysis of Low-Power FMCW Radars for Vital Sign Monitoring
Marty, S., Ronco, A., Pantanella, F., Dheman, K., & Magno, M. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2024.3381692 · Cited by 24
“At these frequencies, the skin penetration of the signal is below 1 mm [21].”
BackgroundColella, M., Meo, S. D., Liberti, M., Pasian, M., & Apollonio, F. (2023) · IEEE transactions on microwave theory and techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2023.3267568 · Cited by 29
“The same sequence of layers (skin, subcutaneous fat tissue, and muscle) was used by Wu et al. [40] to model human tissue with the aim of analyzing the steady-state temperature increase due to the exposure to EM waves at 40, 60, 80, and 100 GHz.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLi, K., Kodera, S., Poljak, D., Diao, Y., Sasaki, K., Zhang, S., Yao, M., Kapetanović, A. L., Li, C., Wu, T., et al. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3358109 · Cited by 23
“The use of radio wave transmitters in millimeter wave frequencies has raised public concerns regarding the potential adverse health effects of excessive exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) [1], [2], [3], [4].”
BackgroundSelf-citationAn Anatomical Model for the Simulation and Development of Subcutaneous Implantable Wireless Devices
Green, R. B., Hays, M. R., Mangino, M. J., & Topsakal, E. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2020.3008619 · Cited by 23
“The measured results from the porcine animal model and the human tissue [16] are shown in Figs.”
Castellanos, M. R., Love, D. J., & Hochwald, B. M. (2016) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/acssc.2016.7869045 · Cited by 22
Cooper, M. D. (2019) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2019.06.038 · Cited by 27
Epidermal Backscattering Antennas in the 5G Framework: Performance and Perspectives
Amato, F., Occhiuzzi, C., & Marrocco, G. (2020) · IEEE Journal of Radio Frequency Identification · doi:10.1109/jrfid.2020.2998082 · Cited by 22
“effects of mmWave radiations on heating and penetration of the human body were theoretically discussed in [17].”
BackgroundInfluentialCoViS: A Contactless Health Monitoring System for the Nursing Home
Lopes, S. I., Silva, F., Pinho, P. G. L. F., Marques, P. A. C., Abreu, C., Milheiro, J., Braga, B., Queirós, G., Almeida, R., & Carvalho, N. B. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3355060 · Cited by 22
“…systems operate in the low-energy part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the principal possible source of harm to the subject would be skin burns [26], [27]; however, this risk is mitigated not only by keeping the output power low but by the attenuation added given the distance between the…”
BackgroundElectromagnetic Radiation Reduction in 5G Networks and Beyond Using Thermal Radiation Mode
Kour, H., & Jha, R. K. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2020.3020004 · Cited by 22
“This leads to heating of the tissues due to temperature rise and it has also been validated that at high frequency of operation such as mmWave the power density exposure to the human body is also high [10].”
BackgroundMethodEmpirical Evaluation of a 28 GHz Antenna Array on a 5G Mobile Phone Using a Body Phantom
Vähä-Savo, L., Cziezerski, C., Heino, M., Haneda, K., Icheln, C., Hazmi, A., & Tian, R. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2021.3076535 · Cited by 4
“9 mm [23], and is thicker than the penetration depth of electromagnetic waves at 28 GHz.”
Authentication in Millimeter-Wave Body-Centric Networks Through Wireless Channel Characterization
Zhao, N., Zhang, Z., Rehman, M. U., Ren, A., Yang, X., Zhao, J., Zhao, W. Z., & Dong, B. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2017.2681462 · Cited by 21
“semi-infinite plane to the incident mm-waves [15].”
BackgroundInfluentialAdverse Impacts of 5G Downlinks on Human Body
Nasim, I., & Kim, S. (2019) · IEEE SoutheastCon · doi:10.1109/southeastcon42311.2019.9020454 · Cited by 21
“Few prior studies in the literature paid attention to human EMF exposure in communications system at above 6 GHz frequency spectrum [7][13]-[17].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOdularu, A. T. (2020) · Journal of Spectroscopy · doi:10.1155/2020/8869713 · Cited by 20
“'e range has electromagnetic waves with minimum frequencies of below one g hertz to a maximum of over 10(28) hertz, equivalent to wavelengths [9] or from a fraction of an atomic nucleus size to a thousand kilometre [8].”
BackgroundPotential key challenges for terahertz communication systems
Solyman, A., & Elhaty, I. A. (2021) · International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems/International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering · doi:10.11591/ijece.v11i4.pp3403-3409 · Cited by 20
“Thus, THz radiation is considered as a non-ionizing photon energy [49, 50].”
BackgroundKaripidis, K., Brzozek, C., Bhatt, C. R., Loughran, S., & Wood, A. (2021) · Environmental Evidence · doi:10.1186/s13750-021-00252-w · Cited by 20
“The 5G network currently operates at 3.6 GHz and 26–28 GHz and there are plans for future mobile networks to utilise higher frequency bands beyond 60 GHz [9].”
InfluentialExposure Levels Induced in Curved Body Parts at mmWaves
Sacco, G., Haider, Z., & Zhadobov, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Electromagnetics RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1109/jerm.2022.3178604 · Cited by 20
Millimeter Wave Radiation Activates Leech Nociceptors via TRPV1-Like Receptor Sensitization
Romanenko, S., Harvey, A. R., Hool, L. C., Begley, R., Fan, S., & Wallace, V. P. (2019) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2019.04.021 · Cited by 20
Human EMF Exposure in Wearable Networks for Internet of Battlefield Things
Nasim, I., & Kim, S. (2019) · IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM) · doi:10.1109/milcom47813.2019.9020889 · Cited by 17
“The FCC suggests power density (PD) as a metric measuring the human exposure to EMFs generated by devices operating at frequencies higher than 6 GHz [7], whereas a recent study suggested that the specific absorption rate (SAR) is more efficient to determine the health issues especially when devices are operating very…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKaripidis, K., Brzozek, C., Mate, R., Bhatt, C. R., Loughran, S., & Wood, A. (2023) · Environmental Evidence · doi:10.1186/s13750-023-00304-3 · Cited by 17
“Other RF EMF sources operating above 3 GHz include radar, satellite transmissions and Wi-Fi [8].”
InfluentialInvestigation of mmWave Radar Technology For Non-contact Vital Sign Monitoring
Marty, S., Pantanella, F., Ronco, A., Dheman, K., & Magno, M. (2023) · IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA) · doi:10.1109/memea57477.2023.10171940 · Cited by 16
Kazmi, A., Zada, M., Islam, S., & Yoo, H. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3374896 · Cited by 16
“The main reason for calculating PD is the low penetration depth at higher frequencies; thus, the heating occurs only on the surface of the tissue [40].”
BackgroundMitigation of human EMF exposure in downlink of 5G
Nasim, I., & Kim, S. (2018) · Annals of Telecommunications · doi:10.1007/s12243-018-0696-6 · Cited by 15
Quasi-Yagi Slotted Array Antenna with Fan-Beam Characteristics for 28 GHz 5G Mobile Terminals
Kim, S., & Choi, J. (2020) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app10217686 · Cited by 14
“As we mentioned, since skin penetration depth of the energy is less than 2 mm at 15 GHz and less than 1 mm at 30 GHz [16], a simplified skin phantom of 2 mm thickness with a relative dielectric constant of 16.”
BackgroundKarthik, V., & Rao, T. R. (2018) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.22133 · Cited by 13
“Safe use of the antenna on the body is more closely related to temperature changes than power density values [Wu et al., 2015].”
BackgroundChevillon, R., Andrieux, G., Négrier, R., & Diouris, J. (2018) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2882679 · Cited by 13
“Although biological safety [13] and channel behavior [14], [15] of mmWaves are not totally defined at the”
BackgroundWilliams, C. F., Geroni, G. M., Lloyd, D., Choi, H., Clark, N., Pirog, A., Lees, J., & Porch, A. (2019) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.24.5.051412 · Cited by 13
Dynamic Electromagnetic Exposure Allocation for Rayleigh Fading MIMO Channels
Castellanos, M. R., Ying, D., Love, D. J., Peleato, B., & Hochwald, B. M. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2019.2948916 · Cited by 13
“In [24], the peak SAR measurement of a mmWave system is shown to be much larger than those in microwave frequencies because the penetration depth at a high frequency band is very shallow.”
Upper-bound Performances of RFID Epidermal Sensor Networks at 5G Frequencies
Amato, F., Amendola, S., & Marrocco, G. (2019) · Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks · doi:10.1109/bsn.2019.8771071 · Cited by 12
“Instead, at mmWave frequencies, a single-layer skin model is enough to reliably evaluate reflection and electromagnetic penetration in the skin since more than 90% of the transmitted electromagnetic power is absorbed within the epidermis and dermis layers and little power penetrates further into deeper tissues [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialShakya, D., Rappaport, T. S., Shahrjerdi, D., Knox, M. E., Nie, S., Madanayake, A., Popovic, Z. B., & Wang, H. (2024) · IEEE Microwave Magazine · doi:10.1109/mmm.2023.3320820 · Cited by 12
“As shown by Wu et al. for mm-wave frequencies for 5G [51], energy absorbed into human tissue does not cause appreciable heating, and no research could ever be found to definitively show mm-wave frequencies are harmful to humans.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMultifaceted Free-Space Tissue Sensing up to 100 GHz
Prokscha, A., Batra, A., Santhakumaran, S., Fabricius, J., Kirchner, E. A., & Kaiser, T. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3439605 · Cited by 12
“Additionally, based on the estimated skin conductivity comparison from different studies presented in [79], it can be summarized that the absorption or penetration losses from skin increase with frequency.”
BackgroundMethodArea-Averaged Transmitted and Absorbed Power Density on a Realistic Ear Model
Kapetanović, A. L., Sacco, G., Poljak, D., & Zhadobov, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Electromagnetics RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1109/jerm.2022.3225380 · Cited by 12
“Thus far, most of dosimetry studies at MMW used planar tissue-equivalent single- [11], [12], [13] or multi-layer [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19] models.”
BackgroundShrivastava, P., & Rao, T. R. (2017) · IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine · doi:10.1109/map.2017.2753702 · Cited by 12
“Unlike evaluations of SAR or temperature [19], [20], evaluations of PD depend only on the density of power traveling toward the tissues and do not rely on knowledge of the distribution of fields or power absorption in the tissues.”
BackgroundMethodLi, K., & Sasaki, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.795414 · Cited by 12
Assessment of Incident Power Density on Spherical Head Model up to 100 GHz
Kapetanović, A. L., & Poljak, D. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility · doi:10.1109/temc.2022.3183071 · Cited by 12
Human Electromagnetic Field Exposure in Wearable Communications: A ReviewPreprint
Kim, S., Sharif, Y. A., & Nasim, I. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1912.05282 · Cited by 12
“The pain detection threshold temperature for human skin is approximately 43◦C [40] and any temperature exceeding it can cause a long-term injury.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Wu, T., Rappaport, T. S., & Collins, C. M.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- NYU Langone Health (US)
- Venue
- IEEE Microwave Magazine
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 65-84
- ISSN
- 1527-3342 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4629874
- OpenAlex
- W2029468290
- Cited by
- 243
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 10.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- IEEE Microwave Magazine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (P41EB017183)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Effects
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Microwave Engineering and Waveguides
- Keywords
- millimeter-wave communication, 60 GHz, IEEE 802.11ad, 5G, unlicensed spectrum, wireless local area networks, data rate requirements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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