The DOI matches its Crossref record; 214 of the 227 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Cochlear Implants: System Design, Integration, and Evaluation
Open accessAbstract
As the most successful neural prosthesis, cochlear implants have provided partial hearing to more than 120000 persons worldwide; half of which being pediatric users who are able to develop nearly normal language. Biomedical engineers have played a central role in the design, integration and evaluation of the cochlear implant system, but the overall success is a result of collaborative work with physiologists, psychologists, physicians, educators, and entrepreneurs. This review presents broad yet in-depth academic and industrial perspectives on the underlying research and ongoing development of cochlear implants. The introduction accounts for major events and advances in cochlear implants, including dynamic interplays among engineers, scientists, physicians, and policy makers. The review takes a system approach to address critical issues in cochlear implant research and development. First, the cochlear implant system design and specifications are laid out. Second, the design goals, principles, and methods of the subsystem components are identified from the external speech processor and radio frequency transmission link to the internal receiver, stimulator and electrode arrays. Third, system integration and functional evaluation are presented with respect to safety, reliability, and challenges facing the present and future cochlear implant designers and users. Finally, issues beyond cochlear implants are discussed to address treatment options for the entire spectrum of hearing impairment as well as to use the cochlear implant as a model to design and evaluate other similar neural prostheses such as vestibular and retinal implants.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Speech Recognition with Primarily Temporal Cues
Shannon, R., Zeng, F.-G., Kamath, V., Wygonski, J., & Ekelid, M. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.270.5234.303 · Cited by 3,302
Self-citationAcoustic Theory of Speech Production
Fant, G. (1971) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110873429 · Cited by 2,966
Class E-A new class of high-efficiency tuned single-ended switching power amplifiers
Sokal, N., & Sokal, A. D. (1975) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.1975.1050582 · Cited by 2,036
Structure and function of auditory cortex: music and speech
Zatorre, R. J., Belin, P., & Penhune, V. B. (2002) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01816-7 · Cited by 1,582
van de Ven, & Haines, A. (1999) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,421
Better speech recognition with cochlear implants
Wilson, B. S., Finley, C. C., Lawson, D. T., Wolford, R. D., Eddington, D. K., & Rabinowitz, W. M. (1991) · Nature · doi:10.1038/352236a0 · Cited by 1,211
Temporal information in speech: acoustic, auditory and linguistic aspects
Rosen, S. (1992) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1992.0070 · Cited by 1,142
Factors Governing the Intelligibility of Speech Sounds
French, N. R., & Steinberg, J. C. (1947) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.1916407 · Cited by 1,137
Bryson, J. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315256894-38 · Cited by 1,135
Rf, G. (1985) · Cited by 949
Research works printed but not linked: 21
- luxford, 1985, Cochlear Implants, 92105, 1
- 10.1177/000348940711600401 · DOI
- 10.1097/MAO.0b013e318184f492 · DOI
- 1997, Multichannel Cochlear Implant System Including Wearable Speech Processor
- 2003, Multichannel Cochlear Implant with Neural Response Telemetry
- 2004, Transcutaneous Power Optimization Circuit for Cochlear Implant
- 2001, Power Transfer Circuit for Implanted Devices
- 1991, Transcutaneous Power and Signal Transmission System and Methods for Increased Signal Transmission Efficiency
- 1985, Cochlear Implant System for an Auditory Prosthesis
- robert, 2002, House Ear Institute Nucleus Research Interface (HEINRI) Users Guide
- 1998, Embedded Data Link and Protocol
- ricketts, 2002, Middle Ear Implants, 6
- 10.1097/01.mlg.0000167993.05007.35 · DOI
- 10.1080/00016480260000021 · DOI
- fraysse, 1998, Cochlear implants for adults obtaining marginal benefit from acoustic amplification, Am J Otol, 19, 591
- 10.1007/s101620020013 · DOI
- 10.1002/cii.45 · DOI
- 2006, Digitally Controlled RF Amplifier with Wide Dynamic Range Output
- 2001, High Compliance Output Stage for a Tissue Stimulator
- 2001, Programmable Current Output Stimulus Stage for Implantable Device
- 2006, Remote Control Unit for Use with an Implantable Neural Stimulator
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–880 of 880
Virtual Reality Music Training for CI Users: Insights and Design Guidelines
Hansen, E. S., Kristiansen, S. M. K., Serafin, S., & Adjorlu, A. (2025) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW) · doi:10.1109/vrw66409.2025.00135
Fujita, T., & Wada, K. (2025) · Electronics and Communications in Japan · doi:10.1002/ecj.12488
Optimization frameworks for bespoke sensory encoding in neuroprosthetics
Leong, F., Micera, S., & Shokur, S. (2025) · APL Bioengineering · doi:10.1063/5.0249434
Toward elucidating the mechanism of cochlear stimulation by infrared light
Moser, T., & Roos, L. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2507582122
Perception of Essential Sound in Cochlear Implants: Prediction Using Deep Learning Techniques
Jasmine, A. S., & Suganthi, B. (2025) · International Conference on Communication, Security and Artificial Intelligence (ICCSAI) · doi:10.1109/iccsai64074.2025.11064066
McIntosh, M. K., Hong, M. G. L., Morris, D. P., McNeely, P. D., Walling, S. A., & Christie, S. (2025) · Journal of Neurosurgery Case Lessons · doi:10.3171/case25167
Park, J., Yun, J. H., Jang, J. H., Brügger, J., & Jang, J. (2025) · Sensors and Actuators B Chemical · doi:10.1016/j.snb.2025.138496
Gubert, P. H., Bispo, B. C., & Costa, M. H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Audio Speech and Language Processing · doi:10.1109/taslpro.2025.3599773
A Bidirectional, Full-Duplex, Implantable Wireless CMOS System for Prosthetic Control
Collu, R., Salis, C., Ferrazzano, E., & Barbaro, M. (2025) · Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks · doi:10.3390/jsan14050092
End-to-end audio-visual learning for cochlear implant sound coding simulations in noisy environments
Lin, M.-L., Huang, E. H.-H., Chien, S., & Tsao, Y. (2026) · JASA Express Letters · doi:10.1121/10.0042198
Zhu, M., Marcellis, R. G. J., Willems, P. J. B., Vermorken, B. L., van Boxel, S. C. J., Stultiens, J. J. A., Janssen, A. M. L., Beckers, J., Volpe, B., Grouvel, G., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.10.17.25338057
Fine-Tuning Whisper for Cochlear Implant Speech Comprehension Evaluation
Chang, H.-L., Huang, E. H.-H., Lin, W., & Tsao, Y. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics - Taiwan (ICCE-Taiwan) · doi:10.1109/icce-taiwan66881.2025.11207855
A Two-Axis Framework to Map Reasons for Neurotechnology Use
Wood, G. M. D. O., Dolezal, E. R., Berger, L. M., Zandonella, P., Gremsl, T., & Staudegger, E. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-11108-1_17
Tsai, C.-J., & Tang, K. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2025.3634251
Surgical Considerations for Partial Cochlear Implant Insertion
Rudnik, N., Timm, M. E., Salcher, R. B., & Lenarz, T. (2025) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/mao.0000000000004769
Honeycomb Electrode Arrangement Improves Stability of Sputtered Iridium Oxide Electrodes*
Matter, L., Raos, B. J., Hazelgrove, B., Harland, B. C., López, S. G., Svirskis, D. M., & Asplund, M. (2025) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc58623.2025.11251625
Wenger, C., Fellner, A., & Rattay, F. (2025) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2025.1639092
Computational Models and Hardware Implementations for Real-Time Neuron–Machine Interactions
Chan, R. H. M., Mak, T., & Tin, C. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8151-5_12
A Novel Method for Extraction of Neural Response from Cochlear Implant Auditory Evoked Potentials
Sinkiewicz, D. (2014) · RIT Scholar Works (Rochester Institute of Technology)
Memristor-driven spike encoding for fully implantable cochlear implants
Török, T. N., Kövecs, R., Braun, F., Pollner, Z., Zeffer, T., Khánh, N. Q., Pósa, L., Revesz, P. Z., Kim, H., Piqué, A., et al. (2026) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110761
Khanna, V. K. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99868-3_21
Self-Regulating Load Voltage in a CMOS Cross-Coupled Rectifier
Fujita, T., Takahide, S. A. T. O., & Ogawa, S. (2025) · doi:10.1109/icm66518.2025.11322510
Wang, Y., Xiang, L., Huang, S., Chen, H., Yang, G., Zhang, G., & Huang, Y. (2025) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas67066.2025.00096
Otawa, R., & Torikai, H. (2025) · International SoC Design Conference · doi:10.1109/isocc66390.2025.11329833
Gastaldon, S., Gheller, F., Bonfiglio, N., Brotto, D., Bottari, D., Trevisi, P., Martini, A., Vespignani, F., & Peressotti, F. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.25.701504
Kiran, R., & Kumar, A. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2026.3659735
Nguyen, E., Barkóczi, B., Horváth, C., Judák, L., Rózsa, B. J., Ceyssens, F., Ulbert, I., Wittner, L., Schelles, M., & Fiáth, R. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.02.09.704741
An Experiment of Neural Prosthesis Based on an Electronic Circuit Spiking Neuron Model
Shirafuji, S., & Torikai, H. (2025) · IEEE Asia Pacific Conference on Circuits and Systems (APCCAS) · doi:10.1109/apccas67402.2025.11376798
Biomaterials in medical applications: A review
Shahatha, S. H., Jabbar, R., Betti, Z. A., Naji, G. A.-H., Mohammed, M. A., Mohammed, S. H., Cuevas‐Suárez, C. E., & Majid, H. (2026) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0306953
Displacement of a Cochlear Implant Magnet – A Case Report and Literature Review
Witek, B., Simlot, M., Markowski, J., & Przytuła-Kandzia, K. (2026) · Polski Przegląd Otorynolaryngologiczny · doi:10.5604/01.3001.0055.6408
Future Optical Cochlear Implants
Huet, A. T. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-15719-5_15
Advancements and Challenges in Signal Processing and Sound Coding for Cochlear Implants
Nogueira, W. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-15719-5_2
Advanced Performance Measurement Techniques in Cochlear Implant Patients: EEG, eABR
Valentin, O., Nguyen, D. L., & Lehmann, A. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-15719-5_8
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0002
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0009
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0004
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0010
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.005.0001
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0006
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0011
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0008
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0003
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0012
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.002.0004
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0007
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0001
Legge, G. E. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198946960.003.0005
Seldran, F. (2011) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/e16298ecz7ee9z4907za93bzd0423f3798ec
Energy-efficient neural stimulation system design for implantable medical devices
Kang, J., Eom, K., Lee, H.-S., Lee, H.-S., Jung, H., Chon, H., Ahn, M., & Lee, H. (2026) · Biomedical Engineering Letters · doi:10.1007/s13534-026-00572-1
Williams, M. T., Lawlor, G. L., Collar, B., & Irazoqui, P. P. (2026) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-026-09989-x
Negri, F., Guggenmos, D. J., & Barban, F. (2026) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ae5f4b
Peng, Z. E., Kan, A., & Litovsky, R. Y. (2026) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/10.0043466
Mamun, N., & Hansen, J. H. L. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp55912.2026.11463084
Rhythm in Speech and Language Disabilities
Meyer, L., & Strauß, A. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009295888.049
Philips, C., Jacquemin, L., Lammers, M. J. W., Vanderveken, O. M., & Rompaey, V. V. (2026) · Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde · doi:10.47671/tvg.82.25.105
A High-Efficiency Buck–Boost Converter with a Wide Load Range for Neural Stimulators
Fei, Z., Zhou, T., & Qu, W. (2026) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas66217.2026.11562195
Rotational Freeform Stimulator for Non-Pulsatile Neuromodulation
Cheng, K., Li, P., Varghese, R. M., Foxworthy, G. E., Fridman, G. Y., & Thomas, W. M. (2025) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner61569.2025.11588939
Neurotechnologies and their Hardwired Politics
Friedrich, D. A. (2026) · Techné Research in Philosophy and Technology · doi:10.5840/techne202678227
Supercapacitors in Healthcare Devices
Durukan, M. B., Aygün, S. Ç., & Ünalan, H. E. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00175
3D ‐Printed Electroanatomic Twins of Cadaveric Cochleae: A Platform for Cochlear Implant Testing
Swords, C., Roberts, I. V., Clark, S. T., Hrnčiřík, F., Huang, B., Guérit, F., Brassett, C., & Bance, M. (2026) · Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology · doi:10.1002/lio2.70509
Almarri, N., Peralta, F., Silva, J., Page-Taylor, E., Ganguly, A., Khalid, E., Cailliau, B., Morales‐Puebla, J. M., & Lassaletta, L. (2026) · European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology · doi:10.1007/s00405-026-10442-2
Auditory Attention Detection for Thai Speech Using EEG Decoding
Samretngan, S., Israsena, P., & Pan-ngum, S. (2026) · International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON) · doi:10.1109/ecti-con68836.2026.11608369
Rivière, M. E., Morice, C., Tourrel, G., Laborde, A., Malaquin, L., & Foncy, J. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-63614-9
Jasińska, K. K., & Nematova, S. (2024) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Gersdorff, G., Nopp, P., Camby, S., & Lefebvre, P. P. (2026) · Audiology and Neurotology · doi:10.1159/000552800
A Fully Programmable Dual-Channel CMOS Neurostimulator With Ultra-Low Charge Mismatch
Contardi, S., Ria, A., Gagliardi, F., Bruschi, P., & Piotto, M. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2026.3726766
Low-Frequency CMARs Based on Flexible Polymer Diaphragm Served for Microphones of Cochlear Implants
Yuan, Y., Wang, J., & Yeow, J. T. W. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Nanotechnology (IEEE-NANO) · doi:10.1109/nano67986.2026.11667479
Fuentes, Á. R., Carrizosa, M. J., Ramos, R., Gil-Simoes, R., & Alén, J. F. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2026.3731112
Asynchronous audio processing for cochlear implants with peak–trough detection
Armin, A., Kohandel, R., & Yavari, M. (2026) · AEU - International Journal of Electronics and Communications · doi:10.1016/j.aeue.2026.156602
Hybrid Flexible–Soft Neural Interface as a Practical Solution for Long‐Term Implants
Ji, B., Zhang, Z., You, X., Wang, X., Huang, Y., Cao, J., Bai, R., Chen, J., Zhao, H., Chang, H., et al. (2026) · Rare Metals · doi:10.1002/rar2.70619
A Robust High-Efficiency Class-E Power Oscillator for Inductive Power Transmission
Pezeshkpour, S., Ahmadi, M. M., & Assaad, M. M. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2026.3736043
Guérit, F., & Carlyon, R. P. (2026) · Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology · doi:10.1007/s10162-026-01076-6
Cochlear transform: A novel bio-inspired digital stethoscope for biomedical signals
Alfalahi, H., Khandoker, A., & Hadjileontiadis, L. (2026) · Measurement · doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2026.123573
Human factors issues and challenges in healthcare product design
Rahman, A., Das, A., & Datta, T. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-36382-5.00014-3
Inner ear: Imaging and functional correlation
Yuvaraj, P., Rajasekaran, A. K., Ravichandran, S., David, L. R., Kadavigere, R., Ozsahin, D. U., Shettigar, D., Sukumar, S., Özşahin, İ., & Uzun, B. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-28967-5.00020-4
Deep Learning–Based Control of Electrically Evoked Activity in Human Visual Cortex
Moure, P., Granley, J., Grani, F., Soo, L., Lozano, A., López-Peco, R., Villamarin-Ortiz, A., Soto-Sanchez, C., Liu, S.-C., Beyeler, M., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.09.24.678361
Metadata
- Authors
- Zeng, F.-G., Rebscher, S., Harrison, W., Sun, X., & Feng, H.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Silere Med. Technol., Inc., Kirkland, WA
- Nurotron Biotechnol. Inc., Irvine, CA
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Zeng, Fan-Gang
- Venue
- IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering
- Published
- 2008
- Volume
- 1
- Pages
- 115-142
- ISSN
- 1937-3333 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-1189
- PMC
- PMC2782849
- OpenAlex
- W2112854909
- Cited by
- 878
- References
- 227
- Citations by year
- 2026: 60 · 2025: 75 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 70 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 1.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- Locations
- IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (HHS-N-263-2007-00054-C, 5r01dc008858-05)
- U.S. Public Health Service (HHSN-263-2007-00054C)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (P30DC008369, HHSN263200700054C, R01-DC008858, R01DC002267)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › Hearing Loss and Rehabilitation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Signal Processing › Speech and Audio Processing
- Keywords
- cochlear implants, neural prostheses, hearing loss, system design, radio frequency transmission, stimulator, electrode arrays, system integration, safety and reliability, functional assessment, pediatric cochlear implant users, vestibular implant, retinal prosthesis
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cochlear Implants, Humans, Prosthesis Design
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
