The SPARC toroidal field model coil program
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The SPARC Toroidal Field Model Coil (TFMC) Program was a three-year effort between 2018 and 2021 that developed novel Rare Earth Barium Copper Oxide (REBCO) superconductor technologies and then successfully utilized these technologies to design, build, and test a first-in-class, high-field (∼20 T), representative-scale (∼3 m) superconducting toroidal field (TF) coil. The program was executed jointly by the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center (PSFC) and Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS) as a technology enabler of the superconducting high-field pathway to fusion energy, and, in particular, as a risk retirement program for the no insulation (NI) TF magnet in the SPARC net-energy fusion tokamak. The TFMC achieved its programmatic goal of experimentally demonstrating a large-scale high-field REBCO magnet, achieving 20.1 T peak field-on-conductor with 40.5 kA of terminal current, 815 kN/m of Lorentz loading on the REBCO stacks, and almost 1 GPa of mechanical stress accommodated by the structural case. Fifteen internal demountable pancake-to-pancake joints operated in the 0.5 to 2.0 nΩ range at 20 K and in magnetic fields up to 12 T. The DC and AC electromagnetic performance of the magnet predicted by new advances in high-fidelity computational models was confirmed in two test campaigns while the parallel, single-pass, pressure-vessel style coolant scheme capable of large heat removal was validated. In the test facility, a feeder system composed of REBCO current leads and cables was experimentally qualified up to 50 kA, and a liquid-free cryocooler-based helium cryogenic system provided 600 W of cooling power at 20 K with mass flow rates up to 70 g/s at a maximum design pressure of 2 MPa for the test campaigns. Finally, the feasibility of using passive, self-protection against a quench in a fusion-scale NI TF coil was experimentally assessed. While the TFMC was intentionally not optimized for quench resiliency – and suffered localized thermal damage in response to an intentional open-circuit quench at 31.5 kA terminal current – the extensive data and validated models that it produced represent a critical step towards this important objective.
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Within REBCO tapes, the copper stabilizing layer serves as a quench protection mechanism by dissipating heat and providing an alternative current path during transient events.
“Within the constituent REBCO tapes, the copper stabilizing layer also serves as a quench protection mechanism by dissipating heat and providing an alternative current path during transient events [26].”
From A facility for thermo-mechanical characterization of fusion magnet materials during cryogenic ion irradiation (2025) · cites this paper as [26]
Cu-110 was selected as a benchmark material for its crucial role in REBCO HTS magnets and cables.
“Cu-110 was selected as a benchmark material for its crucial role in REBCO HTS magnets and cables [24, 25].”
From A facility for thermo-mechanical characterization of fusion magnet materials during cryogenic ion irradiation (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
VIPER cables operating at 20 K exhibit high cryostability, benefiting from copper specific heats and thermal conductivities.
“For example, VIPER cables (operating at 20 K) exhibit high cryostability, benefiting from copper specific heats and thermal conductivities.”
From A facility for thermo-mechanical characterization of fusion magnet materials during cryogenic ion irradiation (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
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REBCO tapes for applications in ultra-high fields: critical current surface and scaling relations
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Roadmap for the investigation of irradiation effects in HTS for fusion
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Self-citation50-kA Capacity, Nitrogen-Cooled, Demountable Current Leads for the SPARC Toroidal Field Model Coil
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Self-citation21.7-T Large-Scale High-Temperature Superconducting Toroidal Magnet for Tokamak Fusion Application
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The Roadmap for runaway electron-induced plasma facing component damage in tokamaks
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Self-citationProgress of 33 T Cryogen-Free Superconducting Magnet Project at HFLSM
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Review of materials for HTS magnet impregnation
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Radiation Environment and Damage of HTS Magnets in an ARC-Like Reactor
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Self-citationWatterson, A., Hubbard, A., Diaz-Pacheco, R. R., Francis, A., Granetz, R., Logan, J. S., Golfinopoulos, T., Kaplan, A., Michael, P. C., Murray, R. A., et al. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3527947 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationQuench Prediction for REBCO Pancake Coils Using LSTM
Nakai, Y., & Noguchi, S. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3353719 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Current sharing in double-sided REBCO tapes
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A low-resistance joint of REBCO stacked cable for large-scale superconducting magnets
Zhang, J., Song, P., Wang, B., Liu, Y., Korte, C., & Qu, T. (2025) · Superconductivity · doi:10.1016/j.supcon.2025.100191 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
High Current Density Cables for Simpler HTS Magnets in Fusion Energy Systems
Zhai, Y., Otto, A., & ZARNSTORFF, M. C. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3358253 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
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Numerical analysis of hysteresis loss in VIPER cables for HTS fusion applications
Wiseman, A., Sun, Y., Strickland, N., & Jiang, Z. (2025) · Superconductor Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/1361-6668/adbf55 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Quench Protection of Stacks of No-Insulation HTS Pancake Coils by Capacitor Discharge
Mulder, T., Woźniak, M., & Verweij, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3362755 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Report on Progress Towards a 10 kA Transformer-Rectifier Flux Pump
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Optimization of passive superconductors for shaping stellarator magnetic fields
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Overview of the physics basis for the ARC fusion power plant
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Self-citationManufacture and Testing of Pre-prototype HTS Twisted Stack Slotted-Core Cable
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A Full-Wave High-Temperature Superconducting Rectifier Based on AC Field-Controlled Switches
Li, G., Li, C., Xin, Y., & Li, B. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/tpel.2024.3452500 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Method of Quench Detection in HTS Magnets
Radovinsky, A. L., Martovetsky, N. N., & Kuznetsov, S. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3520084 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationExperimental and numerical study on current distribution in parallel co-wound no-insulation coils
Liu, Y., Song, P., Xiao, M., Shao, L., Xu, Z., Korte, C., & Qu, T. (2025) · Superconductor Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/1361-6668/ae2361 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Superconducting magnet technology for the outer coils of resistive-superconducting hybrid magnets
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A full-bridge flux pump using two switches: numerical model and experimental prototype
Li, C., Li, G., Xin, Y., & Li, B. (2024) · Superconductor Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/1361-6668/ad74a2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Advancing Reel-to-Reel Inspection Techniques for Long HTS Conductors: Comparison and Innovations
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Self-citationR&D Needs for a U.S. Fusion Magnet Base Program
Zhai, Y., Larbalestier, D. C., Duckworth, R. C., Hartwig, Z., Prestemon, S. O., & Forest, C. B. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2023.3349368 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationAnalytical methods to calculate electromagnetic stress of superconducting solenoid magnets
Park, J., Choi, K., Yan, Y., Kim, J., & Hahn, S. (2024) · Acta Mechanica Sinica · doi:10.1007/s10409-024-24068-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Numerical Simulation of Unbalanced Forces on NI REBCO TF Coils During Quench Event
Sakakibara, R., & Noguchi, S. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3534743 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Numerical analysis of electromagnetic behavior in D-shaped coils for toroidal field magnet
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Synthetic measurements of runaway electron synchrotron emission in the SPARC tokamak
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Elaboration of a 100-kA Class HTS REBCO Rutherford Cable for High-Field Applications
Li, X., Qin, J., Yang, W., & Macián‐Juan, R. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3530907 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Reactor-scale stellarators with force and torque minimized dipole coils
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Toward an Encapsulated LTS Quench Detector for Fast Quench Detection in HTS Magnets
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Loss and Thermal Analysis of a High Temperature Superconducting Central Solenoid for Tokamak
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Deuterium–tritium levitated dipole fusion power plants
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Charging Delay Elimination of Solder Impregnated Hts Coils with Specific Excitation Current
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A platform to study defect-induced behavior in high-temperature superconductor cables
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Self-citationLiquid Nitrogen Superconducting Test Facility at the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center
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Self-citationReducing Magnetization AC Loss in Twisted-Stacked HTS Cables
Gao, S. Y., Tan, X. Y., Zhang, H., Cai, F. G., Yang, X., Jiang, J., Shen, B. Y., & Zhao, Y. X. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3555643 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
AC losses in the STEP TF magnet during plasma initiation
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Reliable and predictable time constant tuning in HTS coils using the controlled area bypass method
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Yang, C., Hong, Q.-F., Chang, C.-L., & Chen, I. (2024) · Journal of Materials Research and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.08.049 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Supercritical Helium Flow Calorimetry at the MIT Superconducting Magnet Test Facility
Michael, P. C., Golfinopoulos, T., Kaplan, A., Schweiger, S., Garcia, I., Watterson, A., Chamberlain, S., Nash, D., Craighill, C., Sanabria, C., et al. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3508664 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationBending Characteristics of REBCO Rutherford-Type Cable (FReTC)
Takayasu, M., Chiesa, L., Navarro, C., Moore, P., & Solovyov, V. F. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3527943 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Influence of Quench Position on Quench Behaviors of Parallel-Wound No-Insulation HTS Coils
Liu, X., Fu, Y., Peng, W., Zhao, Y., & Wang, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3534167 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Fernández-Serracanta, O., Konoplev, I. V., Chouhan, S., Zhang, H., Zhang, J., Yang, Y., Chen, X., & Zhang, M. (2025) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/9cgs-ywmk · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Contact Resistance Change Due to Air Gap Generation Between Turns of NI REBCO Pancake Coils
Sato, H., & Noguchi, S. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3362309 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sato, H., Mato, T., Obana, T., & Noguchi, S. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2025.3551215 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Role of High Temperature Superconductors for a 10 TeV Muon Collider
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Development and Testing of the First REBCO Racetrack Model Coils at CERN
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A “20 T at 20 K” Model Coil for the Muon Collider Target Solenoid and Fusion Applications
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Characteristic resistance change of no-insulation REBCO pancake coils by deformation
Noguchi, S. (2024) · Acta Mechanica Sinica · doi:10.1007/s10409-023-23312-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Possible Alternative Concept of HTS Accelerator Magnets
Pong, I., Wang, X., Croteau, J.-F., & Teyber, R. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2024.3389649 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
An improved CECE-HWP process to achieve full utilization of stable isotopes in water
Lv, W., Lu, R., Ye, H., & Dong, H. (2024) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105559 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hartwig, Z. S., Vieira, R. F., Dunn, D., Golfinopoulos, T., LaBombard, B., Lammi, C. J., Michael, P. C., Agabian, S., Arsenault, D., Barnett, R., Barry, M., Bartoszek, L., Beck, W. K., Bellofatto, D., Brunner, D., Burke, W., Burrows, J., Byford, W., Cauley, C., Chamberlain, S., Chavarria, D., Cheng, J., Chicarello, J., Diep, V., Dombrowski, E., Doody, J., Doos, R., Eberlin, B., Estrada, J., Fry, V., Fulton, M., Garberg, S., Granetz, R., Greenberg, A., Greenwald, M., Heller, S., Hubbard, A. E., Ihloff, E., Irby, J. H., Iverson, M., Jardin, P., Korsun, D., Kuznetsov, S., Lane-Walsh, S., Landry, R., Lations, R., Leccacorvi, R., Levine, M., Mackay, G., Metcalfe, K., Moazeni, K., Mota, J., Mouratidis, T., Mumgaard, R., Muncks, J., Murray, R. A., Nash, D., Nottingham, B., O'Shea, C., Pfeiffer, A. T., Pierson, S. Z., Purdy, C., Radovinsky, A., Ravikumar, D. K., Reyes, V., Riva, N., Rosati, R., Rowell, M., Salazar, E. E., Santoro, F., Sattarov, A., Saunders, W., Schweiger, P., Schweiger, S., Shepard, M., Shiraiwa, S., Silveira, M., Snowman, F., Sorbom, B. N., Stahle, P., Stevens, K., Stillerman, J., Tammana, D., Toland, T. L., Tracey, D., Turcotte, R., Uppalapati, K., Vernacchia, M., Vidal, C., Voirin, E., Warner, A., Watterson, A., Whyte, D. G., Wilcox, S., Wolf, M., Wood, B., Zhou, L., & Zhukovsky, A.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Commonwealth Fusion Systems (United States) (US)
- Bartoszek Engineering, Aurora, IL, USA
- Commonwealth Fusion Systems, Devens, MA, USA
- MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center, Cambridge, MA, USA
- eViorin Engineering Consulting, Batavia, IL, USA
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (DE)
- ORCID
- Hartwig, Zachary S.
- Vieira, Rui F.
- Golfinopoulos, Theodore
- LaBombard, Brian
- Michael, Philip C.
- Barnett, Raheem
- Bartoszek, Larry
- Brunner, Daniel
- Burke, William
- Chamberlain, Sarah
- Cheng, JL
- Dombrowski, Eric
- Doody, Jeffrey
- Doos, Raouf
- Estrada, Jose
- Fry, Vincent
- Fulton, Matthew
- Granetz, Robert
- Greenwald, Martin
- Hubbard, Amanda E.
- Korsun, Daniel
- Kuznetsov, Sergey
- Lane-Walsh, Stephen
- Lations, Richard
- Levine, Matthew
- Metcalfe, Kristen
- Mouratidis, Theodore
- Mumgaard, Robert
- Muncks, JP
- Murray, Richard A.
- Nash, Daniel
- Pfeiffer, Andrew T.
- Radovinsky, Alexi
- Ravikumar, Dhananjay K.
- Riva, Nicolo
- Salazar, Erica E.
- Santoro, Fernando
- Sattarov, Akhdiyor
- Schweiger, Shane
- Shiraiwa, Syun'ichi
- Sorbom, Brandon N.
- Stillerman, Joshua
- Tammana, Deepthi
- Uppalapati, Kiran
- Vernacchia, Matthew
- Vidal, Christopher
- Voirin, Erik
- Watterson, Amy
- Whyte, Dennis G.
- Wolf, Michael
- Zhou, Lihua
- Zhukovsky, Alex
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity
- Published
- 2024-03
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 1-16
- ISSN
- 1051-8223 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-2515
- 2378-7074
- OpenAlex
- W4388624351
- Cited by
- 192
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 6
- FWCI
- 15.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center
- Commonwealth Fusion Systems
- CFS
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Superconducting Materials and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Magnetic confinement fusion research
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Fusion materials and technologies
- Keywords
- SPARC tokamak, toroidal field coils, REBCO superconductors, high-field superconducting magnets, quench protection, current leads, fusion energy
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