The Faiss Library
Open accessAbstract
Vector databases typically manage large collections of embedding vectors. As AI applications are growing rapidly, the number of embeddings that need to be stored and indexed is increasing. The Faiss library is dedicated to vector similarity search, a core functionality of vector databases. Faiss is a toolkit of indexing methods and related primitives used to search, cluster, compress and transform vectors. This paper describes the trade-offs in vector search and the design principles of Faiss in terms of structure, approach to optimization and interfacing. We benchmark key features of the library and discuss a few selected use cases to highlight its broad applicability.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints
Lowe, D. G. (2004) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1023/b:visi.0000029664.99615.94 · Cited by 55,589 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Datasets: Early datasets are based on keypoint features like SIFT [39] used in image matching.”
SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in Python
Virtanen, P., Gommers, R., Oliphant, T. E., Haberland, M., Reddy, T., Cournapeau, D., Burovski, E., Peterson, P., Weckesser, W., Bright, J., et al. (2020) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-019-0686-2 · Cited by 38,430 · see citing works
Least squares quantization in PCM
Lloyd, S. (1982) · IEEE Transactions on Information Theory · doi:10.1109/tit.1982.1056489 · Cited by 15,836 · see citing works
Enriching Word Vectors with Subword Information
Bojanowski, P., Grave, E., Joulin, A., & Mikolov, T. (2017) · Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/tacl_a_00051 · Cited by 9,645 · see citing works
ArcFace: Additive Angular Margin Loss for Deep Face Recognition
Deng, J., Guo, J., Xue, N., & Zafeiriou, S. (2019) · 2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2019.00482 · Cited by 7,781 · see citing works
Emerging Properties in Self-Supervised Vision Transformers
Caron, M., Touvron, H., Misra, I., Jegou, H., Mairal, J., Bojanowski, P., & Joulin, A. (2021) · 2021 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv48922.2021.00951 · Cited by 5,638 · see citing works
Billion-scale similarity search with GPUs
Johnson, J., Douze, M., & Jegou, H. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Big Data · doi:10.1109/tbdata.2019.2921572 · Cited by 4,228 · see citing works
Self-citationLocality-sensitive hashing scheme based on p-stable distributions
Datar, M., Immorlica, N., Indyk, P., & Mirrokni, V. (2004) · Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry (SoCG) · doi:10.1145/997817.997857 · Cited by 2,971 · see citing works
Product Quantization for Nearest Neighbor Search
Jégou, H., Douze, M., & Schmid, C. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2010.57 · Cited by 2,956 · cited 8× · see citing works
“Given this search algorithm, relying on a pure k-nearest neighbor graph is not optimal because neighbors are redundant.”
InfluentialSelf-citationDeep Clustering for Unsupervised Learning of Visual Features
Caron, M., Bojanowski, P., Joulin, A., & Douze, M. (2018) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01264-9_9 · Cited by 2,674 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasurement Reliability and Validity
(2000) · Research Methods in Applied Settings · doi:10.4324/9781410605337-29 · Cited by 2,541 · see citing works
Similarity estimation techniques from rounding algorithms
Charikar, M. (2002) · ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (STOC) · doi:10.1145/509907.509965 · Cited by 2,262 · see citing works
Malkov, Y. A., & Yashunin, D. A. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2018.2889473 · Cited by 1,904 · see citing works
Hamming Embedding and Weak Geometric Consistency for Large Scale Image Search
Jegou, H., Douze, M., & Schmid, C. (2008) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-88682-2_24 · Cited by 1,901 · cited 1× · see citing works
“They are often combined with compressed-domain representation and are especially appropriate for very large-scale settings [16], [22].”
Self-citationGong, Y., Lazebnik, S., Gordo, A., & Perronnin, F. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2012.193 · Cited by 1,834 · see citing works
Aggregating Local Image Descriptors into Compact Codes
Jegou, H., Perronnin, F., Douze, M., Sanchez, J., Perez, P., & Schmid, C. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2011.235 · Cited by 1,503 · see citing works
Self-citationScalable Nearest Neighbor Algorithms for High Dimensional Data
Muja, M., & Lowe, D. G. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2014.2321376 · Cited by 1,401 · see citing works
Concept Decompositions for Large Sparse Text Data Using Clustering
Dhillon, I. S., & Modha, D. S. (2001) · Machine Learning · doi:10.1023/a:1007612920971 · Cited by 1,308 · see citing works
Wang, J., Zhang, T., Song, J., Sebe, N., & Shen, H. T. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2017.2699960 · Cited by 1,034 · see citing works
HashNet: Deep Learning to Hash by Continuation
Cao, Z., Long, M., Wang, J., & Yu, P. S. (2017) · 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2017.598 · Cited by 777 · see citing works
Efficient k-nearest neighbor graph construction for generic similarity measures
Dong, W., Charikar, M., & Li, K. (2011) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/1963405.1963487 · Cited by 703 · see citing works
Learning to Hash for Indexing Big Data—A Survey
Wang, J., Liu, W., Kumar, S., & Chang, S. (2015) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2015.2487976 · Cited by 524 · see citing works
(2021) · doi:10.1145/3448016.3457550 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Optimized Product Quantization for Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search
Ge, T., He, K., Ke, Q., & Sun, J. Z. (2013) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2013.379 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Fast approximate nearest neighbor search with the navigating spreading-out graph
Fu, C., Xiang, C. J., Wang, C., & Cai, D. (2019) · Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment · doi:10.14778/3303753.3303754 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
KILT: a Benchmark for Knowledge Intensive Language Tasks
Petroni, F., Piktus, A., Fan, A., Lewis, P., Yazdani, M., De Cao, N., Thorne, J., Jernite, Y., Karpukhin, V., Maillard, J., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2021 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies · doi:10.18653/v1/2021.naacl-main.200 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Embedding-based Retrieval in Facebook Search
Huang, J.-T., Sharma, A., Sun, S., Xia, L., Zhang, D., Pronin, P., Padmanabhan, J., Ottaviano, G., & Yang, L. (2020) · ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) · doi:10.1145/3394486.3403305 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Searching in one billion vectors: Re-rank with source coding
Jeǵou, H., Tavenard, R., Douze, M., & Amsaleg, L. (2011) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp.2011.5946540 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Self-citationANN-Benchmarks: A benchmarking tool for approximate nearest neighbor algorithms
Aumüller, M., Bernhardsson, E., & Faithfull, A. (2019) · Information Systems · doi:10.1016/j.is.2019.02.006 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Locality sensitive hashing: A comparison of hash function types and querying mechanisms
Paulevé, L., Jeǵou, H., & Amsaleg, L. (2010) · Pattern Recognition Letters · doi:10.1016/j.patrec.2010.04.004 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Additive Quantization for Extreme Vector Compression
Babenko, A., & Lempitsky, V. (2014) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2014.124 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Wang, M., Xu, X., Yue, Q., & Wang, Y. (2021) · Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment · doi:10.14778/3476249.3476255 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
REPLUG: Retrieval-Augmented Black-Box Language Models
Shi, W., Min, S., Yasunaga, M., Seo, M., James, R., Lewis, M., Zettlemoyer, L., & Yih, W.-T. (2024) · Proceedings of the 2024 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.naacl-long.463 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Learning Joint Multilingual Sentence Representations with Neural Machine Translation
Schwenk, H., & Douze, M. (2017) · Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/w17-2619 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citationOptimal Data-Dependent Hashing for Approximate Near Neighbors
Andoni, A., & Razenshteyn, I. (2015) · ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (STOC) · doi:10.1145/2746539.2746553 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search by Residual Vector Quantization
Chen, Y., Guan, T., & Wang, C. (2010) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s101211259 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Speeding up the Xbox recommender system using a euclidean transformation for inner-product spaces
Bachrach, Y., Finkelstein, Y., Gilad-Bachrach, R., Katzir, L., Koenigstein, N., Nice, N., & Paquet, U. (2014) · ACM Conference on Recommender Systems (RecSys) · doi:10.1145/2645710.2645741 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Tree quantization for large-scale similarity search and classification
Babenko, A., & Lempitsky, V. (2015) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2015.7299052 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Image similarity search with compact data structures
Lv, Q., Charikar, M., & Li, K. (2004) · ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM) · doi:10.1145/1031171.1031213 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
A Self-Supervised Descriptor for Image Copy Detection
Pizzi, E., Roy, S. D., Ravindra, S. N., Goyal, P., & Douze, M. (2022) · 2022 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr52688.2022.01413 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationFiltered-DiskANN: Graph Algorithms for Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search with Filters
Gollapudi, S., Karia, N., Sivashankar, V., Krishnaswamy, R., Begwani, N., Raz, S., Lin, Y., Zhang, Y., Mahapatro, N., Srinivasan, P., et al. (2023) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3543507.3583552 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
How to Train Your Dragon: Diverse Augmentation Towards Generalizable Dense Retrieval
Lin, S.-C., Asai, A., Li, M., Oğuz, B., Lin, J., Mehdad, Y., Yih, W.-T., & Chen, X. (2023) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP (Findings of EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.findings-emnlp.423 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
CAGRA: Highly Parallel Graph Construction and Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search for GPUs
Ootomo, H., Naruse, A., Nolet, C., Wang, H., Fehér, T., & Wang, Y. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE) · doi:10.1109/icde60146.2024.00323 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Revisiting Additive Quantization
Martínez, J., Clement, J., Hoos, H. H., & Little, J. J. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46475-6_9 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Off the Beaten Path: Let's Replace Term-Based Retrieval with k-NN Search
Boytsov, L., Novak, D., Malkov, Y., & Nyberg, E. (2016) · Proceedings of the 25th ACM International on Conference on Information and Knowledge Management · doi:10.1145/2983323.2983815 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Douze, M., Jeǵou, H., & Perronnin, F. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46475-6_48 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationLink and Code: Fast Indexing with Graphs and Compact Regression Codes
Douze, M., Sablayrolles, A., & Jeǵou, H. (2018) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2018.00384 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationLSQ++: Lower Running Time and Higher Recall in Multi-codebook Quantization
Martínez, J., Zakhmi, S., Hoos, H. H., & Little, J. J. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01270-0_30 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Douze, M., & Jeǵou, H. (2014) · ACM International Conference on Multimedia (ACM MM) · doi:10.1145/2647868.2654892 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationUnsupervised Neural Quantization for Compressed-Domain Similarity Search
Morozov, S., & Babenko, A. (2019) · IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2019.00313 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
An Approximate Algorithm for Maximum Inner Product Search over Streaming Sparse Vectors
Bruch, S., Nardini, F. M., Ingber, A., & Liberty, E. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Information Systems · doi:10.1145/3609797 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
RoarGraph: A Projected Bipartite Graph for Efficient Cross-Modal Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search
Chen, M., Zhang, K., He, Z., Jing, Y., & Wang, X. S. (2024) · Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment · doi:10.14778/3681954.3681959 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Balancing clusters to reduce response time variability in large scale image search
Tavenard, R., Jeǵou, H., & Amsaleg, L. (2011) · International Workshop on Content-Based Multimedia Indexing (CBMI) · doi:10.1109/cbmi.2011.5972514 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Sandhawalia, H., & Jeǵou, H. (2010) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp.2010.5495403 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Asymmetric Mapping Quantization for Nearest Neighbor Search
Hong, W., Tang, X., Meng, J., & Yuan, J. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2019.2925347 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
DeDrift: Robust Similarity Search under Content Drift
Baranchuk, D., Douze, M., Upadhyay, Y., & Yalnız, İ. Z. (2023) · IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv51070.2023.01012 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationTPU-KNN: K Nearest Neighbor Search at Peak FLOP/s
Chern, F., Hechtman, B., Davis, A., Guo, R., Majnemer, D., & Kumar, S. (2022) · neural information processing systems · doi:10.52202/068431-1127 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bringing Semantic Knowledge Graph Technology to Your Data
van Luijt, B., & Verhagen, M. (2020) · IEEE Software · doi:10.1109/ms.2019.2957526 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Escalera, S., & Hebrich, R. (2019) · The Springer series on challenges in machine learning · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29135-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The 2023 Video Similarity Dataset and ChallengePreprint
Pizzi, E., Kordopatis-Zilos, G., Patel, H., Postelnicua, G., Ravindra, S. N., Gupta, A., Papadopoulos, S., Tolias, G., & Douze, M. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4597445 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationNearest Neighbor Search with Compact Codes: A Decoder Perspective
Amara, K., Douze, M., Sablayrolles, A., & Jeǵou, H. (2022) · International Conference on Multimedia Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3512527.3531408 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, J., Nolte, N., Sadhukhan, R., Chen, B., & Bottou, L. (2024) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2405.06394 · cited 1×
“We continue doing this to include novel quantization techniques [54], better hardware support for some indexes [49] and new indexing forms, such as associative vector memories for transformer architectures [91], [92].”
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Retrieval augmented generation for large language models in healthcare: A systematic review
Amugongo, L. M., Mascheroni, P., Brooks, S., Doering, S., & Seidel, J. (2025) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000877 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
The power of noise: Redefining retrieval for rag systems
Cuconasu, F., Trappolini, G., Siciliano, F., Filice, S., Campagnano, C., Maarek, Y., Tonellotto, N., & Silvestri, F. (2024) · Proceedings of the 47th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3626772.3657834 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Evaluating Retrieval Quality in Retrieval-Augmented Generation
Salemi, A., & Zamani, H. (2024) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3626772.3657957 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
From Matching to Generation: A Survey on Generative Information Retrieval
Li, X., Jin, J., Zhou, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, P., Zhu, Y., & Dou, Z. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Information Systems · doi:10.1145/3722552 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Zhao, X., Liu, S., Yang, S.-Y., & Miao, C. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Web Conference 2025 · doi:10.1145/3696410.3714782 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
GIS Copilot: towards an autonomous GIS agent for spatial analysis
Akinboyewa, T., Li, Z., Ning, H., & Lessani, M. N. (2025) · International Journal of Digital Earth · doi:10.1080/17538947.2025.2497489 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
A survey on retrieval-augmentation generation (RAG) models for healthcare applications
El-Enen, M. A. A., Saad, S., & Nazmy, T. M. (2025) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-025-11666-9 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
SCORE: Story Coherence and Retrieval Enhancement for AI Narratives
Yi, Q., He, Y., Wang, J., Song, X., Lu, K., Qian, S., Yuan, X., Xin, Y., Wang, Y., Tang, J., et al. (2026) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3774905.3795734 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
AIGC-empowered smart manufacturing: Prospects and challenges
Leng, J., Zheng, K., Li, R. C., Chen, C., Wang, B., Liu, Q., Chen, X., & Shen, W. (2025) · Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.rcim.2025.103076 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Shi, D., Liedl, P., & Bauernhansl, T. (2024) · Journal of Manufacturing Systems · doi:10.1016/j.jmsy.2024.10.011 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
A trimodal protein language model enables advanced protein searches
Su, J., He, Y., You, S., Jiang, S. J., Zhou, X., Zhang, X., Wang, Y., Su, X., Tolstoy, I., Chang, X., et al. (2025) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-025-02836-0 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Unifying Multimodal Retrieval via Document Screenshot Embedding
Ma, X., Lin, S.-C., Li, M., Chen, W., & Lin, J. (2024) · Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.emnlp-main.373 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
PersonaFlow: Designing LLM-Simulated Expert Perspectives for Enhanced Research Ideation
Liu, Y., Sharma, P., Oswal, M., Xia, H., & Huang, Y. (2025) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3715336.3735789 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
A multimodal large language model for materials science
Tang, Y., Xu, W., Cao, J., Ma, J., Gao, W., Farrell, S., Erichson, N. B., Mahoney, M. W., Nonaka, A., & Yao, Z. (2026) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-026-01214-y · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Zhuang, S., Ma, X., Koopman, B., Lin, J., & Zuccon, G. (2024) · Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.emnlp-main.250 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Gao, J., Gou, Y., Xu, Y., Yang, Y., Long, C., & Wong, R. C.-W. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3725413 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Shi, D., Meyer, O., Oberle, M., & Bauernhansl, T. (2024) · Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.rcim.2024.102837 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Generating Long Semantic IDs in Parallel for Recommendation
Hou, Y., Li, J., Shin, A., Jeon, J., Santhanam, A., Shao, W. P., Hassani, K., Yao, N., & McAuley, J. (2025) · ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) · doi:10.1145/3711896.3736979 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Knowledge-to-SQL: Enhancing SQL Generation with Data Expert LLM
Hong, Z., Yuan, Z., Chen, H., Zhang, Q., Huang, F., & Huang, X. B. (2024) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL (Findings of ACL) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.findings-acl.653 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Towards Automated Multiple Choice Question Generation and Evaluation: Aligning with Bloom’s Taxonomy
Hwang, K., Wang, K., Alomair, M., Choa, F.-S., & Chen, L. K. (2024) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64299-9_35 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
CyberRAG: An agentic RAG cyber attack classification and reporting tool
Blefari, F., Cosentino, C., Pironti, F. A., Furfaro, A., & Marozzo, F. (2025) · Future Generation Computer Systems · doi:10.1016/j.future.2025.108186 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Emerging trends: a gentle introduction to RAG
Church, K., Sun, J., Yue, R., Vickers, P., Saba, W., & Chandrasekar, R. (2024) · Natural Language Engineering · doi:10.1017/s1351324924000044 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Shi, D., Li, J., Meyer, O., & Bauernhansl, T. (2025) · Computers in Industry · doi:10.1016/j.compind.2025.104330 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
LLM-Powered Multimodal AI Conversations for Diabetes Prevention
Dao, D. K. T., Teo, J. Y. C., Wang, W., & Nguyen, H. D. (2024) · doi:10.1145/3643479.3662049 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Evidence-backed Fact Checking using RAG and Few-Shot In-Context Learning with LLMs
Singal, R., Patwa, P., Patwa, P., Chadha, A. R., & Das, A. (2024) · Fact Extraction and VERification Workshop (FEVER) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.fever-1.10 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Navigating Labels and Vectors: A Unified Approach to Filtered Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search
Cai, Y., Shi, J., Chen, Y., & Zheng, W. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3698822 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Rethinking and Accelerating Graph Condensation: A Training-Free Approach with Class Partition
Gao, X., Ye, G., Chen, T., Zhang, W., Yu, J., & Yin, H. (2025) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3696410.3714916 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Intent-driven network management with multi-agent LLMs: the confucius framework
Wang, Z., Lin, S., Yan, G., Ghorbani, S., Yu, M., Zhou, J., Hu, N., Baruah, L., Peters, S., Kamath, S., et al. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM 2025 Conference · doi:10.1145/3718958.3750537 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Collective intelligence for AI-assisted chemical synthesis
Li, H., Sarkar, S., Lu, W., Loftus, P. O., Qiu, T., Shee, Y., Cuomo, A. E., Webster, J.-P., Kelly, H. R., Manee, V., et al. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10131-4 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Gou, Y., Gao, J., Xu, Y., & Long, C. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3709730 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Protein and genomic language models uncover the unexplored diversity of bacterial immunity
Mordret, E., Hervé, A., Tesson, F., Vaysset, H., Clabby, T., Loubat, A., Shomar, H., Planel, R., Lavenir, R., Cury, J., et al. (2026) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adv8275 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A Survey of Personalization: From RAG to Agent
Li, X., Jia, P., Xu, D., Wen, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, W., Wang, W., Wang, Y., Du, Z., Li, X., et al. (2026) · ACM Transactions on Information Systems · doi:10.1145/3802586 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Patel, L., Jha, S., Pan, M., Gupta, H., Asawa, P., Guestrin, C., & Zaharia, M. (2025) · Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment · doi:10.14778/3749646.3749685 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Multiple-Choice Questions and Answers Generation
Pradeesh, N., Remya, T., Thushara, M. G., Krishna, K. A., & Pranav, V. S. (2025) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2025.03.352 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
iRangeGraph: Improvising Range-dedicated Graphs for Range-filtering Nearest Neighbor Search
Xu, Y., Gao, J., Gou, Y., Long, C., & Jensen, C. S. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3698814 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Memory$^3$: Language Modeling with Explicit Memory
Yang, H., Lin, Z., Wang, W., Wu, H., Li, Z., Tang, B., Wei, W., Wang, J., Tang, Z., Song, S., et al. (2024) · Journal of Machine Learning · doi:10.4208/jml.240708 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Liu, Y., Pei, C., Xu, L., Chen, B., Sun, M., Zhang, Z., Sun, Y., Zhang, S., Kun, W., Zhang, H., et al. (2025) · ACM Joint European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering (ESEC/FSE) · doi:10.1145/3696630.3728572 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Siragusa, I., Contino, S., Ciura, M. L., Alicata, R., & Pirrone, R. (2025) · Data Science and Engineering · doi:10.1007/s41019-025-00297-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Federated reasoning LLMs: a survey
Wei, S., Tong, Y., Zhou, Z., Xu, Y., Gao, J., Wei, T., He, T., & Lv, W. (2025) · Frontiers of Computer Science · doi:10.1007/s11704-025-50480-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Retrieval-Augmented Few-Shot Medical Image Segmentation With Foundation Models
Zhao, L., Chen, X., Chen, E. Z., Liu, Y., Chen, T., & Sun, S. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems · doi:10.1109/tnnls.2025.3568479 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
RAGing ahead in rheumatology: new language model architectures to tame artificial intelligence
Benavent, D., Venerito, V., & Vegas, X. M. (2025) · Therapeutic Advances in Musculoskeletal Disease · doi:10.1177/1759720x251331529 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Mohammed, M. Y., Ali, S. A., Ali, S. K., Majeed, A. A., & Mohamed, E. H. (2025) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-025-11229-y · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Demonstrating CAESURA: Language Models as Multi-Modal Query Planners
Urban, M., & Binnig, C. (2024) · ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data (SIGMOD) · doi:10.1145/3626246.3654732 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Introducing ChatSQC: Enhancing statistical quality control with augmented AI
Megahed, F. M., Chen, Y., Zwetsloot, I. M., Knoth, S., Montgomery, D. C., & Jones‐Farmer, L. A. (2024) · Journal of Quality Technology · doi:10.1080/00224065.2024.2372328 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Improving Medical Multi-modal Contrastive Learning with Expert Annotations
Kumar, Y., & Marttinen, P. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-72661-3_27 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
EchoSight: Advancing Visual-Language Models with Wiki Knowledge
Yan, Y., & Xie, W. (2024) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP (Findings of EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.findings-emnlp.83 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Wołk, K. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14214227 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
FALCON: Feedback-driven Adaptive Long/short-term memory reinforced Coding OptimizatioN
Li, Z., He, Y., He, L., Wang, J., Shi, T., Lei, B., Li, Y., & Chen, Q. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME) · doi:10.1109/icme59968.2025.11208959 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Mansurova, A., Tleubayeva, A., Nugumanova, A., Shomanov, A., & Şeker, Ş. E. (2025) · Information · doi:10.3390/info16110943 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Large-scale detection of multilingual coordinated activity on Telegram
Blas, L., Saraf, D., Salkar, T., Adadurova, N., Luceri, L., & Ferrara, E. (2025) · npj Complexity · doi:10.1038/s44260-025-00056-w · Cited by 18 · see citing works
AutoIOT: LLM-Driven Automated Natural Language Programming for AIoT Applications
Shen, L., Yang, Q., Zheng, Y., & Li, M. (2025) · ACM Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom) · doi:10.1145/3680207.3723486 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
GUing: A Mobile GUI Search Engine using a Vision-Language Model
Wei, J., Courbis, A.-L., Lambolais, T., Xu, B., Bernard, P. L., Dray, G., & Maalej, W. (2024) · ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology · doi:10.1145/3702993 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Kemper, S., Cui, J., Dicarlantonio, K., Lin, K., Tang, D., Korikov, A., & Sanner, S. (2024) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3626772.3657670 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Question-Based Retrieval using Atomic Units for Enterprise RAG
Raina, V., & Gales, M. (2024) · Fact Extraction and VERification Workshop (FEVER) · doi:10.18653/v1/2024.fever-1.25 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Bai, S., Cai, Y., Chen, R., Chen, K., Chen, X., Cheng, Z., Deng, L., Ding, W., Gao, C., Ge, C., et al. (2025) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2511.21631 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
REIS: A High-Performance and Energy-Efficient Retrieval System with In-Storage Processing
Chen, K., Nadig, R., Frouzakis, M., Ghiasi, N. M., Liang, Y., Mao, H., Park, J., Sadrosadati, M., & Mutlu, O. (2025) · Proceedings - International Symposium on Computer Architecture/Proceedings · doi:10.1145/3695053.3731116 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
CLIP-Branches: Interactive Fine-Tuning for Text-Image Retrieval
Lülf, C., Martins, D. M. L., Salles, M. A. V., Zhou, Y., & Gieseke, F. C. (2024) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3626772.3657678 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
VexIR2Vec : An Architecture-Neutral Embedding Framework for Binary Similarity
VenkataKeerthy, S., Banerjee, S., Dey, S., Andaluri, Y., Raghul, P. S., Kalyanasundaram, S., Pereira, F. M. Q., & Upadrasta, R. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology · doi:10.1145/3721481 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Developing large language models for quantum chemistry simulation input generation
Jacobs, P. F., & Pollice, R. (2025) · Digital Discovery · doi:10.1039/d4dd00366g · Cited by 14 · see citing works
GaussDB-Vector: A Large-Scale Persistent Real-Time Vector Database for LLM Applications
Sun, J., Li, G., Pan, J., Wang, J., Xie, Y., Liu, R., & Nie, W. (2025) · Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment · doi:10.14778/3750601.3750619 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Semantic IDs for Joint Generative Search and Recommendation
Penha, G., D’Amico, E., Nadai, M. D., Palumbo, E., Tamborrino, A., Vardasbi, A., Lefarov, M., Lin, S., Heath, T., Fabbri, F., et al. (2025) · ACM Conference on Recommender Systems (RecSys) · doi:10.1145/3705328.3759300 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
MaRAG: a knowledge graph and retrieval-augmented framework for maritime accident analysis
Zou, Y., Wang, S., Li, G., & Ning, B. (2025) · Ocean Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2025.123622 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
M3DocVQA: Multi-Modal Multi-Page Multi-Document Understanding
Cho, J., Mahata, D., İrsoy, O., He, Y., & Bansal, M. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops · doi:10.1109/iccvw69036.2025.00649 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
PromptMap: An Alternative Interaction Style for AI-Based Image Generation
Adamkiewicz, K., Woźniak, P. W., Dominiak, J., Romanowski, A., Karolus, J., & Frolov, S. (2025) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3708359.3712150 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Mask-based Membership Inference Attacks for Retrieval-Augmented Generation
Liu, M., Zhang, S., & Long, C. (2025) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3696410.3714771 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Accelerating Graph Indexing for ANNS on Modern CPUs
Wang, M., Wu, H., Ke, X., Gao, Y., Zhu, Y., & Zhou, W. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3725260 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Question Decomposition for Retrieval-Augmented Generation
Ammann, P. J. L., Golde, J., & Akbik, A. (2025) · Proceedings of the conference - Association for Computational Linguistics. Meeting · doi:10.18653/v1/2025.acl-srw.32 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Protein Set Transformer: a protein-based genome language model to power high-diversity viromics
Martin, C., Gitter, A., & Anantharaman, K. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-66049-4 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Majidian, S., Hadziahmetovic, A., Langschied, F., Pascarelli, S., Prieto-Baños, S., Rojas-Vargas, J., Arvestad, L., Cheema, J., Cosentino, S., Ebersberger, I., et al. (2025) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/s00239-025-10272-6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
GATSim: Urban mobility simulation with generative agents
Liu, Q., Li, C., & Ma, W. (2025) · Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory · doi:10.1016/j.simpat.2025.103234 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
SnapSeek 3.0: Interactive Lifelog Search System with Enhanced Scene Understanding
Ho-Le, M.-Q., Ho, D.-K., Ninh, V.-T., Nguyen, T.-T., Gurrin, C. G., & Tran, M.-T. (2025) · ACM Workshop on the Lifelog Search Challenge (LSC) · doi:10.1145/3729459.3748697 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Revealing a coherent cell-state landscape across single-cell datasets with CONCORD
Zhu, Q., Jiang, Z., Zuckerman, B., Weinberger, L. S., Thomson, M. W., & Gartner, Z. J. (2026) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-025-02950-z · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Gong, C., Wei, Z., Tao, W., & Miao, D. (2026) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2026.104614 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
LAPIS: Language Model-Augmented Police Investigation System
Kim, H., Kim, D., Lee, J., Yoon, C., Choi, D., Gim, M., & Kang, J. (2024) · ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM) · doi:10.1145/3627673.3680044 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Fair-CO2: Fair Attribution for Cloud Carbon Emissions
Han, L., Kakadia, J., Lee, B. C., & Gupta, U. (2025) · Proceedings - International Symposium on Computer Architecture/Proceedings · doi:10.1145/3695053.3731023 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
W-RAG: Weakly Supervised Dense Retrieval in RAG for Open-domain Question Answering
Nian, J., Peng, Z., Wang, Q., & Fang, Y. (2025) · ACM SIGIR International Conference on Theory of Information Retrieval (ICTIR) · doi:10.1145/3731120.3744578 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
DARTH: Declarative Recall Through Early Termination for Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search
Chatzakis, M., Yannis Papakonstantinou, D., & Palpanas, T. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3749160 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Krotkov, N. A., Sbytov, D. A., Chakhoyan, A. A., Kornienko, P. I., Starikova, A. A., Stepanov, M. G., Piven, A. O., Aliev, T. A., Orlova, T., Rafayelyan, M. S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling · doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.5c01897 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
RAR: Retrieving and Ranking Augmented MLLMs for Visual Recognition
Liu, Z., Sun, Z., Zang, Y., Li, W., Zhang, P., Dong, X., Xiong, Y., Lin, D., & Wang, J. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2025.3644175 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Decoding the Molecular Language of Proteins with EvollaPreprint
Zhou, X., Han, C., Zhang, Y., Du, H., Tian, J., Su, J., Liu, R., Zhuang, K., Jiang, S., Gitter, A., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.01.05.630192 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
MIRAGE-ANNS: Mixed Approach Graph-based Indexing for Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search
Voruganti, S., & ÖZSU, M. T. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3725325 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
ANSMET: Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search with Near-Memory Processing and Hybrid Early Termination
Li, Y., Jin, Y., Tian, B., Zhang, H., & Gao, M. (2025) · Proceedings - International Symposium on Computer Architecture/Proceedings · doi:10.1145/3695053.3731013 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Hierarchical Knowledge Injection for Improving LLM-based Program Repair
Ehsani, R., Parra, E., Haiduc, S., & Chatterjee, P. (2025) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated Software Engineering (ASE) · doi:10.1109/ase63991.2025.00122 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Singh, M. P., Kumar, A., Donaparthi, S., & Karambelkar, G. (2025) · doi:10.5121/csit.2025.150303 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
HiPerRAG: High-Performance Retrieval Augmented Generation for Scientific Insights
Gökdemir, O., Siebenschuh, C., Brace, A., Wells, A. I., Hsu, B., Hippe, K., Setty, P. V., Ajith, A., Pauloski, J. G., Sastry, V. K., et al. (2025) · Platform for Advanced Scientific Computing Conference (PASC) · doi:10.1145/3732775.3733586 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Lu, Q., Liu, K., Dou, W., Zhu, J., Li, Q., Zhang, C., Lin, Z., & Wei, J. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology · doi:10.1145/3763791 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
LLMs for Explainable Few-shot Deception Detection
Boumber, D., Tuck, B. E., Verma, R. M., & Qachfar, F. Z. (2024) · ACM International Workshop on Security and Privacy Analytics (IWSPA) · doi:10.1145/3643651.3659898 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
MeMemo: On-device Retrieval Augmentation for Private and Personalized Text Generation
Wang, Z. J., & Chau, D. H. (2024) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3626772.3657662 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Schlatt, F., Fröbe, M., & Hagen, M. (2025) · ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining (WSDM) · doi:10.1145/3701551.3704118 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Leveraging Approximate Caching for Faster Retrieval-Augmented Generation
Bergman, S. A., Zhang, J., Kermarrec, A.-M., Petrescu, D., Pires, R. P., Randl, M., & de Vos, M. (2025) · Workshop on Machine Learning and Systems (EuroMLSys) · doi:10.1145/3721146.3721941 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Personalizing Large Language Models using Retrieval Augmented Generation and Knowledge Graph
Prahlad, D., Lee, C., Kim, D., & Kim, H. (2025) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3701716.3715473 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Towards Knowledge Checking in Retrieval-augmented Generation: A Representation Perspective
Zeng, S., Zhang, J., Li, B., Lin, Y., Zheng, T., Everaert, D., Lu, H., Liu, H., Liu, H., Xing, Y., et al. (2025) · Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (NAACL-HLT) · doi:10.18653/v1/2025.naacl-long.151 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Towards Secure Code Generation With LLMs: A Study on Common Weakness Enumeration
Zhao, J., Sun, Y., Huang, C., Liu, C., Guan, Y., Zeng, Y., & Liu, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering · doi:10.1109/tse.2025.3619281 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
s3: You Don’t Need That Much Data to Train a Search Agent via RL
Jiang, P., Xu, X., Lin, J., Xiao, J., Wang, Z., Sun, J., & Han, J. (2025) · Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2025.emnlp-main.1095 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Human-scATAC-Corpus: a comprehensive database of scATAC-seq data
Chen, X., Gao, Z., Li, K., Wang, Z., Jiang, Q., Cui, X., Li, Z., & Jiang, R. (2025) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkaf1216 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Advanced System Integration: Analyzing OpenAPI Chunking for Retrieval-Augmented Generation
Pesl, R. D., Mathew, J. G., Mecella, M., & Aiello, M. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-94571-7_8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Permadi, A. B. P., Nazruddin Safaat, H., Handayani, L., & Yusra, Y. (2024) · Jurnal Teknoif Teknik Informatika Institut Teknologi Padang · doi:10.21063/jtif.2024.v12.1.62-69 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Efficient Dynamic Indexing for Range Filtered Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search
Zhang, F., Jiang, M., Hou, G., Shi, J., Fan, H. T., Zhou, W., Li, F., & Wang, S. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3725401 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Liu, Z., Tang, Q., Nie, S., Wu, S., Zhang, L. F., & Tang, Y. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on software engineering. · doi:10.1145/3728911 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Towards Personalized Conversational Sales Agents: Contextual User Profiling for Strategic Action
Kim, T., Lee, J., Yoon, S., Kim, S., & Lee, D. (2025) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP (Findings of EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2025.findings-emnlp.275 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
- Authors
- Douze, M., Guzhva, A., Deng, C., Johnson, J., Szilvasy, G., Mazaré, P.-E., Lomeli, M., Hosseini, L., & Jégou, H.
- Affiliations
- FAIR, Meta, Paris, France
- Zilliz, Redwood City, CA, USA
- DeepSeek (China) (CN)
- Skip Labs, Paris, France
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Big Data
- Published
- 2026-04
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 346-361
- ISSN
- 2332-7790 (ISSN-L)
- 2372-2096
- OpenAlex
- W4415124086
- Cited by
- 478
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 287 · 2025: 191
- FWCI
- 167.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Big Data (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Topic Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Advanced Database Systems and Queries
- Keywords
- vector similarity search, vector databases, vector indexing, vector embeddings, vector clustering, vector compression, benchmarking
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review