Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory

“…theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), and theories that suggest independent and parallel streams of verbatim (phonological) and gist (semantic) representations, such as the Fuzzy-trace theory (Brainerd et al., 2001; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Brainerd & Reyna, 2004, 2005; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995).”

“…the weak external validity, we worked only on raw recollection scores (i.e., “I remember the news”= 1 point vs. “I don’t remember the news” = 0 point) without asking participants to indicate the level of confidence about their memory and source memory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Kim & Cabeza, 2007).”

“…associative discrimination for scenes observed within each age group may be a result of the demand on associative memory that requires reliance on gist processing and leads to false memories (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Dennis & Turney, 2018; Gallo, 2013; Giovanello et al., 2009; Webb & Dennis, 2019).”

“One suggestion, based on fuzzy trace theory, is that separate verbatim memory traces are encoded for each instance of a repeated event that is experienced (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; 2004).”

“Hence, in time, only gist traces are accessible (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“Global presence preserves the general meaning of information while a specific presence preserves precise features of information [58, 59].”

“On the other hand, gist memory traces involve the storing of the underlying meaning of an experience (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“…depth of processing and encoding of meaning (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), we expected data-driven processing to negatively impact the accuracy for memory for meaning and categories (i.e., gist memory; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002) in favour of memory for specific stimulus information (i.e., verbatim memory).”

“Often, the gist or semantic information is accessed and not the verbatim or episodic information (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“…between true and false memory is to be expected when subjects are instructed to rely on verbatim traces as the basis for a true response, whereas a positive correlation is to be expected when subjects are instructed to rely on gist traces as the basis for a true response (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“…into sins of omission ( transience, absent-mindedness, blocking ) and commission ( misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence ), whose underlying cognitive mechanisms are formalized by associative false memory paradigms [53], fuzzy-trace theory [8], and source monitoring frameworks [34].”

“Because both test probes were from the same object category, participants could not rely on familiarity or gist-level information to make their response (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“This is likely to be attributed largely to the fact that gist representations are more automatic and easier to form, which require fewer attentional resources to integrate into gist memory (Brainerd & Reyna, 1990, 2002; Greene & Naveh-Benjamin, 2023a).”

“Certain researchers have looked at the conceptual framework proposed by fuzzy trace theory (FFT: Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“This analysis comprises an instance of fuzzy-trace theory, which posits that memory judgments receive support from identity sources such as verbatim traces and similarity sources such as gist representations (e.g., Brainerd & Reyna, 2022; Brainerd et al., 1999).”

“Fuzzy-trace theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002) states that verbatim traces are precise representations of memory, while gist traces are meaning-oriented, summarized memory representations.”

“According to the ‘Fuzzy Trace Theory’ of Brainerd and Reyna (2002, 2019), experience is stored as multiple memory fragments in two categories: gist and verbatim traces.”

“For instance, fuzzy trace theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002) suggests that episodic memory comprises both verbatim (exact) traces and gist (underlying meaning) traces.”

“The DRM paradigm is an effective method to measure the formation of false memory with its high level of semantic overlap in the word lists presented to individuals, and its strong gist strategy effect (e.g. Brainerd & Reyna 1998, 2002; Van Damme & d’Ydewalle, 2008).”

“Researchers have also found evidence consistent with FTT. Gist traces are argued to be relatively stable or even increase across long retention intervals (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002), and indeed, the DRM illusion has been shown to persist for weeks following study (Seamon et al., 2002).”

“The literature shows that the occurrence of false memories is usually the result of global, heuristic, relational, familiaritybased, or gist-based processing rather than in distinctive, itemspecific, or verbatim processing (e.g., Smith and Hunt, 1998; Brainerd and Reyna, 2002; McCabe et al., 2004).”

“This result can be best explained based on the fuzzy-trace theory of Brainerd and Reyna (2002), which posits a verbatim memory process that records surface details of an event and a gist memory process that focuses on word meaning-related features.”

“In sum, verbatim traces are used to reject false memories and gist traces are important in the acceptance of critical lures (Brainerd & Reyna, 1998, 2002, 2005; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995).”

“The finding that suggestibility decreased with age presents a challenge to one hypothesis of fuzzy trace theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“…fuzzy-trace theory contends that when a memory is formulated, two representations of that memory are developed: the verbatim trace, the basic form of the experience, and a gist trace, which consists of the general meaning of that experience (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Dewhurst & Robinson, 2004).”

“If we have recently heard news about a terrible plane crash, it may temporarily change our feelings about ight safety [132]; we mistakenly take a ctional event for a true memory [68]; a bogus personality feedback (e.”

“…recognition does not reflect a failure to encode or store sufficient detail as had been previously posited (Schacter, Norman, & Koutstaal, 1998; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002); rather, people have difficulties accessing the stored details unless they are given strong retrieval cues in the form of the…”

“…distinctive processing diminishes semantic activation of new but related items presented at retrieval (i.e., lures) by decreasing their associative strength to list items (Roedi-ger, Watson, McDermott, & Gallo, 2001) or by reducing the thematic consistency of the lists (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“A central feature of the theory is that information about a stimulus is encoded, stored, and accessed in two separate ways: as exact “verbatim” representations and as meaningful but less precise “gist” representations (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, 2004).”

“A third explanation is that participants learn the study words as well as their collective semantic gist, with false recognition following from a match between the theme word and semantic gist (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; cf. Arndt & Hirshman, 1998; Johns, Jones, & Mewhort, 2012).”

“Fuzzy Trace Theory suggests that as participants increase their reliance on gist properties, they should also increase their false memory production (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002), leading to greater boundary extension.”

“…还是其它种 类的错误记忆, 都涉及对原始目标事件的信息加 工。将这种正确记忆形成相关的信息加工与错误 记忆形成相关的对内部图式和外界干扰的信息加 工进行整合, 有利于我们总结出更加全面系统的 错误记忆产生机制。另一方面, 对不同的信息加 工过程进行区分, 分别论述编码、存储、再激活/ 再巩固和提取的一系列加工过程中导致错误记忆 的可能原因。记忆是个动态的过程, 编码、存储、 提取等任一环节出现差池都可能引发错误记忆。 因此 , 在阐述错误记忆影响因素时不仅要考虑 “有或无”, 还要考虑“处于信息加工哪个阶段”, 从而动态地分析其在错误记忆形成中的作用机制。 由此,…”

“The use of pictures in comic books supports individuals’ gist memory that is, remembering the general meaning of things [19].”

““Fuzzy trace” theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995) proposes that two types of information are encoded into memory in parallel: verbatim, item-specific traces, which faithfully record the surface features and details of an experience, and gist representations, which store general…”

“Human memory behaves the same way: fuzzy-trace theory holds that gist traces of meaning outlast verbatim traces of surface detail such as an exact figure (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“Schemas, together with gist traces, can also support memory reconstruction at retrieval, including via inferential filling of gaps [59, 60].”

“Fuzzy Trace Theory (FTT; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995) provides a framework for understanding how these memory errors can arise, irrespective of the underlying putative memory store.”

“Gist traces, however, are encoded primarily in terms of meaning, and one of the main factors driving gist retrieval is familiarity (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“Strongly overlapping study items may promote attention to the gist-level information shared between study items rather than the verbatim-level details that enable differentiation between items (Brainerd & Reyna, 1990, 2002).”

“According to the schema and fuzzy-trace theories of memory [24,74], true recall of event details tends to decline, whereas spontaneous false memories increase with longer intervals between repeated tests.”

“However, when distractors and targets mean-ingfully overlap, the retrieval of gist may generate false memories (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Brainerd, Reyna, and Kneer, 1995).”

“The two main accounts of the DRM illusion, not mutually exclusive, are the activation-monitoring theory (AMT; Roediger & McDermott, 2000; Roediger et al., 2001) and the fuzzy-trace theory (FTT; Brainerd & Reyna, 1998, 2002).”

“Because the gist traces capture the meaning or theme of experiences, one may then falsely remember information that fits the gist, even when it did not happen (Brainerd & Kingma, 1984; Brainerd & Poole, 1997; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Webb et al., 2016).”

“The results align with theoretical accounts such as fuzzy-trace theory (21, 22), which posits that memory stores both perceptual (verbatim) and semantic (gist) traces, and that gist-based retrieval during lures yields false recognition.”

“On the one hand, based on the FTT (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002), we predicted that forgetting may increase false memories due to people’s likelihood to rely on the gist traces of an event when verbatim traces are no longer accessible.”

“The logic is that verbatim, spe-cific remembering (e.g., the exact image of Britney Spears) facilitates endorsement of that same image and rejection of lure images (e.g., a different image of Britney Spears; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“Another widely discussed context involves eyewitness misidentification, where innocent individuals are mistakenly identified as perpetrators of crimes (Brainerd and Reyna 2002).”

“…Jo u r n a P r e - p r o o Journal Pre-proof participants saw two exemplars from the same object category (e.g. two apples; Figure 1). response (Brainerd ) the previously recognition trials ( : List 1 and List 2 choose between two throughout the test phase using a BrainVision according to 1000…”

“Additionally, studies have shown that the “ Big 5 ” personality traits and fi eld cognitive style exhibit phenomena related to false memory (Brainerd and Reyna, 2002).”

“Even with the shortened duration, the time between encoding and retrieval might not have been sufficiently long for verba-tim decay (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, 2004; Koriat et al., 2000; Sachs, 1967).”

“4 Over time, the specific details of a past episode or event may fade rapidly, while the essential gist and other more abstract information tend to remain stored for longer periods (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Reyna et al., 2016).”

“Although we have aligned these explanations with spreading activation and source monitoring frameworks, it also resonates with fuzzy-trace perspectives (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”

“…between semantic and episodic memory during recall is evident in the nature of later memory reports, in which gist is often preserved (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, 2015; Sekeres et al., 2016), even sometimes at the expense of introducing plausible but incorrect content (Bransford &…”