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Cited by 3,392Memory Processes and InfluencesCognitive Functions and MemoryIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

Source monitoring.

Johnson, Marcia K., Hashtroudi, Shahin, Lindsay, D. Stephen·1993·Psychological Bulletin
DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3
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Abstract

A framework for understanding source monitoring and relevant empirical evidence is described, and several related phenomena are discussed: old-new recognition, indirect tests, eyewitness testimony, misattributed familiarity, cryptomnesia, and incorporation of fiction into fact. Disruptions in source monitoring (e.g., from confabulation, amnesia, and aging) and the brain regions that are involved are also considered, and source monitoring within a general memory architecture is discussed. It is argued that source monitoring is based on qualities of experience resulting from combinations of perceptual and reflective processes, usually requires relatively differentiated phenomenal experience, and involves attributions varying in deliberateness. These judgments evaluate information according to flexible criteria and are subject to error and disruption. Furthermore, diencephalic and temporal regions may play different roles in source monitoring than do frontal regions of the brain.

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  • Failures of source or reality monitoring occur because remembered and imagined events are often very similar in content and phenomenology, for instance when imagined events are elaborate, vivid, and plausible.

    “By the continuist view, failures of source/reality monitoring occur because remembered and imagined events are often very similar in content and phenomenology, for instance, when imagined events are elaborate, vivid, and plausible (Devitt, Monk-Fromont, Schacter, & Addis, 2016;Garry, Manning, Loftus, & Sherman, 1996;Johnson et al., 1993).”

    From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Johnson et al., 1993

  • Rats are able to discriminate between self- or experimenter-generated information, a form of source memory known as reality monitoring.

    “Furthermore, rats were shown to be able to discriminate between self- or experimenter-generated information [99]; a form of source memory known as reality monitoring [100].”

    From Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [100]

  • Episodic memory reconstruction is facilitated through source monitoring processes, which allows two different episodes that share multiple common features to be differentiated.

    “Episodic memory reconstruction is facilitated through source monitoring processes, which allows two different episodes that share multiple common features, such as occurring in the same place with the same person, to be differentiated between [100].”

    From Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [100]

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Authors
Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S.
ORCID
Lindsay, D. Stephen
Venue
Psychological Bulletin
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
1993
Volume
114
Issue
1
Pages
3-28
ISSN
  • 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1455
DOI
10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3
OpenAlex
W4234477066
Cited by
3,392
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 118 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 107 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 142 · 2020: 136 · 2019: 118 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 124 · 2016: 117 · 2015: 123 · 2014: 113 · 2013: 121 · 2012: 130
FWCI
18.32
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Institute on Aging (R01AG009253)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords
source monitoring, old/new recognition, eyewitness testimony, misattribution, cryptomnesia, confabulation, amnesia, aging, memory architecture, phenomenal experience, memory errors
MeSH terms
Attention, Brain Mapping, Humans, Imagination, Mental Processes, Psychophysiology, Reality Testing, Mental Recall

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