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Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory
Abstract
A key problem confronting theories of false memory is that false-memory phenomena are so diverse: Some are characteristic of controlled laboratory tasks, others of everyday life; some occur for traumatic events with legal consequences, others for innocuous events; some are characteristic of one developmental level, others of another developmental level. Fuzzy-trace theory explains false memories via a small set of principles that implement a single representational distinction. Those principles generate new predictions, some of which are counterintuitive.
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“Together, these failure modes weaken the boundary between what should be generalized, what should remain task-specific, and what should be preserved as raw episodic evidence (Sun et al., 2023; Bartlett, 1932; Brainerd and Reyna, 2002).”
From Useful Memories Become Faulty When Continuously Updated by LLMs (2026) · cites this paper as Brainerd and Reyna, 2002
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Research works printed but not linked: 15
- 10.1037/0012-1649.32.3.467 · DOI
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- 10.1037/0278-7393.27.2.307 · DOI
- 10.1016/0010-0285(72)90003-5 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.403 · DOI
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- 10.1016/1041-6080(95)90031-4 · DOI
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- 10.1016/S1041-6080(97)90002-9 · DOI
- 10.3758/BF03196177 · DOI
- 10.1006/jmla.2001.2811 · DOI
- 10.1080/741944069 · DOI
Cited by
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Items 501–526 of 526
Şahin, G. (2023) · ODÜ Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi (ODÜSOBİAD) · doi:10.48146/odusobiad.1176393
Slovenian Version of the Deese–Roediger–McDermott Paradigm: A Normative and Exploratory Study
Černe, J., & Kordeš, U. (2023) · Psihološka obzorja / Horizons of Psychology · doi:10.20419/2023.32.572
“Two dominant explanations of the DRM false memory effect are activation-monitoring theory (McDermott & Watson, 2001) and fuzzy-trace theory (FTT; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”
BackgroundSleep Modulates Emotional Effect on False Memory
Deng, R., & Lu, A.-T. (2022) · Psychology in Russia: State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2022.0110
Sievwright, O., Philipp, M., Drummond, A., Knapp, K., Ross, K., Anvari, F., Lakens, D., Besley, T., Peters, M., Brainerd, C., et al. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7287/peerj.12299v0.1/reviews/2
“…memory and recognition decision theories (e.g., fuzzy-trace theory, source monitoring framework, and ballistic accumulator models), poorer memory vividness increases susceptibility to misinformation Manuscript to be reviewed (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Brown & Heathcote, 2008; Johnson et al., 1993).”
Self-citationGilet, A.-L., Evrard, C., & Colombel, F. (2021) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2021.1980289
“This effect can be explained by two main theories: Fuzzy Trace Theory (FFT; e.g.,Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Reyna & Brainerd, 2011) and Activation-Monitoring Theory (AMT; Roediger, Balota, & Watson, 2001).”
BackgroundFalse Memory in Borderline Personality DisorderPreprint
Sajjadi, F., Sellbom, M., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2020) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-119610/v1
Remember/Know and Modality Effects in a Forced-Choice Test of False Memory
Sahin, G., & Tekman, H. (2019) · doi:10.26650/sp2019-0016
“Possibly the common theme of the list encouraged the Westerberg and Marsolek’s participants to engage in verbatim retrieval rather than gist retrieval as described in the fuzzy-trace theory of Brainerd and Reyna (2002).”
BackgroundJonin, P. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/6b93ec30za36az4c78z8aa8z7f2652fcdd97
“…is the idea that conceptual similarity between the lure and the encoded representations of the targets at study will increase the probability to endorse a lure as studied (i.e. Activation Monitoring Theory, Roediger, Watson, McDermott, & Gallo, 2001; Fuzzy Trace Theory, Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”
BackgroundŞahin, G. (2019) · Journal of International Social Research · doi:10.17719/jisr.2019.3265
“…kişileri de suçlu olarak tanımlayabilmeleri, psikoterapi sırasında cinsel istismarla ilgili, kişilerin yaşamadıkları olayları terapistin yönlendirmesi ile yaşamış olduklarını hatırlamaları gibi durumlar sahte hatıra çalışmalarının popülerleşmesine etki eden durumlardır (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”
The ‘Magical’ Effect of Integration on Event Memory
Bruer, K., Price, H. L., & Phenix, T. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3232
Dehon, H. (2012) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb-52-2-3-121
The Processing of Lexical Sequences
Shaoul, C. (2012) · CogPrints (University of Southampton) · doi:10.7939/r3cb0q · Cited by 2
The False Recognition Effect in Criminal Profiling
Bennell, C., Mugford, R., Taylor, A., Bloomfield, S., & Wilson, C. (2008) · doi:10.1007/s11896-008-9022-y
“This is because verbatim traces are known to deteriorate relatively rapidly (Brainerd and Reyna 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialRemembering sentences not presented in lists
Gatti, D., Chang, M.-Y., Talbot, J., & Mazzoni, G. (2026) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2026.104779
False Memories in LLMs: Gist-Based Recognition Despite Verbatim Context
Orthey, R., Pelat, G., & Nakao, Y. (2026) · Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Language Understanding in the Human-Machine Era (LUHME 2026) · doi:10.18653/2026.luhme-1.7
“False memories in humans can be explained by fuzzy-trace theory (FTT; Reyna and Brainerd, 1995; Brainerd and Reyna, 2002).”
An Examination of the Influence of Serial Position on False Memory and Recognition
Audiffred, J., & Broadbridge, C. (2020) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2325-7342.jn25.2.121
“On the other hand, the fuzzy trace theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002) argues that memory traces are stored through gist traces (commonalities among events) and verbatim traces (specific perceptual details of an experience used to help differentiate memories).”
InfluentialVers une nouvelle conception des faux souvenirs dans la dénommée « maladie d’Alzheimer »
Pringault, S. (2019) · Bulletin de Psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.562.0289
Tanaka, H., & Chujo, K. (2019) · The Japanese Journal of Psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.90.18323
Pauline, B., Clayton, N. S., & Jozet-Alves, C. (2019) · Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior · doi:10.4135/9781412963848.n91
Thompson, L. (2018) · doi:10.22215/etd/2018-13173
“An important theory that may supplement the limited research on eyewitness recall of familiar-strangers is the fuzzy trace theory (FTT; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).”
BackgroundWang (2018) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20181010jw
Investigating the Role of Episodic Gist and False Memory
Fogler, K. A. J. (2017) · Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Science · doi:10.15640/jpbs.v5n2a1 · Cited by 1
“Memories are organized according to schemas, gist, and semantic categories (Alba & Hasher, 1983; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; MacKay, 1987; Schacter, Norman, & Koutsaal, 1998) and errors can occur during encoding (MacKay & Miller, 1994; Manelis, Wheeler, Paynter, Storey, & Reder, 2011) and retrieval…”
BackgroundLightfoot, M. (2016) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33266-6_6
Krupinski, M. (2015) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/2099
Metadata
- Authors
- Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- Corresponding author
- Brainerd, C.J.
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2002-10
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 164-169
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W1999454160
- Cited by
- 667
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 5.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Keywords
- fuzzy-trace theory, false memory, memory distortion, traumatic memory, everyday memory, legal memory
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