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Vagal Regulation and Observed Social Behavior in Infancy
Abstract
The goal of the present study was to test a recent hypothesis that the ability to suppress cardiac vagal tone during a cognitive challenge was related to social behavior. One hundred thirty‐six infants participated with their parents in laboratory visits when infants were 12 (mother visit) and 13 months (father visit) of age. To measure the infants’ regulation of cardiac vagal tone, heart rate responses were recorded during the administration of a test of mental development (father visit). Responses to a stranger interaction were measured during the 12 month visit. In addition, experimenters evaluated the infants’ behavior across the laboratory sessions using an adaptation of the Infant Behavior Record. Results revealed that infants who were able to suppress vagal tone during the cognitive challenge were rated by the experimenters as more socially approaching at the two laboratory visits. Vagal regulation was unrelated to behavior during the stranger‐infant interaction. These findings partially support the hypothesis that infants who are able to regulate their vagal tone have a greater capacity for social engagement.
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“Thus, inhibition or withdrawal of RSA during a challenging situation (typically measured as a decrease in RSA from baseline to a challenge task) is thought to reflect more effective regulation, although it may also simply indicate individual differences in what is experienced as aversive or challenging.”
From Mother-infant vagal regulation in the face-to-face still-face paradigm is moderated by maternal sensitivity (2009) · cites this paper as Stifter & Corey, 2001
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“linked to socio-emotional competence, engagement, and selfregulation (e.g., Beauchaine, 2001; Calkins, 1997; Fabes and Eisenberg, 1997; Stifter and Corey, 2001).”
Porges, S. W., & Furman, S. A. (2011) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.688 · Cited by 548
“…situations is related to better state regulation, greater self-soothing, more attentional control, and greater capacity for social engagement (Calkins, Graziano, & Keane, 2007; DeGangi, DiPietro, Porges, & Greenspan, 1991; Huffman et al., 1998; Porges et al., 1996; Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
BackgroundCardiac vagal control and children's adaptive functioning: A meta-analysis
Graziano, P., & Derefinko, K. (2013) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.04.011 · Cited by 439
“…examining actual rates of RSA withdrawal among children from different ethnicities/race, although the few studies available have not found any significant differences (Graziano, Calkins, et al., 2011; Graziano, Keane, et al., 2007; Matthews, Salomon, Kenyon, & Allen, 2002; Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
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“Following previous research (e.g., Calkins, 1997; Stifter & Corey, 2001), to create measures of physiological regulation, we computed difference scores in HP and RSA relative to baseline levels for each episode of the SFP. Positive values of change in HP from baseline (ΔHP) reflected a decrease in…”
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“Temperamental reactivity at age 7 months was assessed by the Infant Behavior Record (IBR; Bayley, 1969) as adapted for use by Stifter and Corey (2001) and completed independently by both home visitors.”
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“For example, using typical measures of heart rate variability, infants who have less variability at rest and who showed greater suppression during challenges have less temperamental difficulties, show more regulatory behaviors, and are typically more attentive (Fox, 1989; Fox and Porges, 1985; Porges et al., 1973; Por…”
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“…though RSA suppression to cognitively challenging stimuli has been linked with adaptive outcomes in nonautistic populations (Calkins & Keane, 2004; Stifter & Corey, 2001), a generalized assessment of social stimuli, such as unfamiliar people, as threatening or as a challenge may have dire…”
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Gaertner, B. M., Spinrad, T. L., & Eisenberg, N. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.580 · Cited by 135
“Similar to other investigators (e.g. Stifter & Corey, 2001), we utilized this measure to make one global rating of toddlers’ attention across the series of tasks that occurred throughout the entire laboratory visit.”
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“More recently, the IBR has been applied to laboratory settings (Carnicero, Perez-Lopez, Del Carmen, Salinas, & MartinezFuentes, 2000; Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
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“Further, infant regulation of cardiac vagal tone is associated with more responsivity toward an experimenter, more positive affect, greater endurance, and less fear and irritability (e.g., Stifter & Corey 2001).”
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Self-citationTemperament and emotion regulation: the role of autonomic nervous system reactivity
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Self-citationParent conflict predicts infants' vagal regulation in social interaction
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“The Infant Behavior Record was applied to behavior observed globally across the entire home visit (Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
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“…has been linked to positive regulatory outcomes from infancy to school age (Calkins, 1997; Huffman et al., 1998; Porges, Doussard- Roosevelt, Lourdes Portales, & Suess, 1994; Stifter & Corey, 2001; Suess, Porges, & Plude, 1994), particularly in low-risk samples (Graziano & Derefinko, 2013).”
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Schuetze, P. A., Eiden, R. D., & Coles, C. D. (2007) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20215 · Cited by 44
“…and both concurrent and future behavioral regulation during frustration (Calkins, 1997) and social tasks (Doussard-Roosevelt, Porges, Scanlon, Alemi, & Scanlon, 1997; Stifter & Corey, 2001; Suess & Bornstein, 2000), the findings of the current study suggest that infants who were Dev Psychobiol.”
ResultWagner, N. J., Holochwost, S. J., Lynch, S. F., Mills-Koonce, R., & Propper, C. B. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.07.025 · Cited by 47
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“…to assess individual differences in behavior observed during the administration of the Bayley Scales of Development, previous research has applied the IBR to rate child behavior observed across an entire laboratory or home visit (Stifter & Corey, 2001; Stifter, Willoughby, & Towe-Goodman, 2008).”
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“visit and applied to behavior globally across the entire home visit [41].”
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“96) months low-income families enrolled in Early Head Start 78% SNAP recipients 48% non-Hispanic white; 29% Black; and 23% Hispanic/Latino Child: healthy eating habits; self-regulation Mother: responsive feeding practices [9] and sensitive scaffolding [99] Child: 24-h food recall; snack delay task [100]; infant behavi…”
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Self-citationCipriano, E. A., Skowron, E. A., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. (2011) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559511408887 · Cited by 33
“This seems especially important to investigate, given that research has found linkages between children’s vagal reactivity and components of their temperament (e.g., Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
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The Cambridge Handbook of Infant Development
Lockman, J. J., Hertz, D., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Brain, B. C., Context..........................................., Rey, J., Falck-Ytter, T., Jones, E., Maurer, D., Cirelli, L., et al. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959 · Cited by 31
Children's narratives and patterns of cardiac reactivity
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“From this perspective, the findings from the present study are consistent with previous findings regarding the association between VT suppression and behavioral regulation in infants and younger children (e.g., Bornstein, & Suess, 2000; Calkins, 1997; Stifter & Corey, 2001 ).”
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“The IBR was applied to behavior observed globally across the entire home visit (Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
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Self-citationVagal Regulation in Breastfeeding Infants and Their Mothers
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“…research, these two items were summed separately for the 18- and 24-month time points creating two exploration scores, one for each time point, with higher scores indicating greater exploration (e.g., Braungart, Plomin, DeFries, & Fulker, 1992; Stifter & Corey, 2001; Wilson & Matheny, 1983).”
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Cardiovascular Regulation Profile Predicts Developmental Trajectory of BMI and Pediatric Obesity
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“Empirical evidence has shown that higher resting HRV is linked to behavioral regulation (e.g., Calkins, 1997), social behavior (e.g., Stifter and Corey, 2001), emotional regulation adaptive strategies (e.g., Cole et al., 1996; Santucci et al., 2008), and prosocial traits (e.g., Miller et al., 2017)…”
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“Then a band-pass filter extracts the HRV within the frequency band of spontaneous respiration in children, 0.24–1.04 Hz, commonly used to index vagal functioning in infants and young children (Calkins & Keane, 2004; Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTronick, E., & DiCorcia, J. A. (2015) · Children Australia · doi:10.1017/cha.2015.11 · Cited by 18
“…have less temperamental difficulties, show more regulatory behaviours and are typically more attentive (Fox, 1989; Fox & Porges, 1985; Porges, Arnold, & Forbes, 1973; Porges, Doussard-Roosevelt, & Maiti, 1994; Porter, 2003; Stifter & Corey, 2001; Stifter & Fox, 1990; Stifter & Jain, 1996).”
Cruz, S., Lifter, K., Barros, C. A. F., Vieira, R., & Sampaio, A. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2020.1768392 · Cited by 17
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“Further, its validity in both the laboratory and home environments has been confirmed (Stifter & Corey, 2001; Stifter, Willoughby, & Towe-Goodman, 2008).”
BackgroundMeasures of infant self‐regulation during the first year of life: A systematic review
Pinto, T. M., & Figueiredo, B. (2023) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2414 · Cited by 20
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“As previously stated, studies suggest that high-baseline HFSD is related to the flexibility of the autonomic nervous system in responding to, and modulating emotional states (Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
Nix, R. L., Gill, S., Hostetler, M. L., Feinberg, M. E., Francis, L. A., Stifter, C. A., McNeil, C. B., Kidder, S. M., Jones, D. E., Park, Y. R., et al. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14006 · Cited by 16
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MethodSelf-citationBrown, M. A., Gao, M. M., Isenhour, J., Shakiba, N., Crowell, S. E., Raby, K. L., & Conradt, E. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424000774 · Cited by 14
“Higher baseline RSA may reflect more positive and responsive emotional states in infancy while lower baseline RSA has been related to more adjustment and cognitive problems (Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
VanSchyndel, S. K., Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., & Spinrad, T. L. (2015) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.12.001 · Cited by 13
Schuetze, P. A., Eiden, R. D., & Edwards, E. P. (2009) · Infancy · doi:10.1080/15250000802569660 · Cited by 14
“…1991), decreased behavior problems in preschool-aged children (Porges et al., 1996), and more adaptive behavior during attention- and affect-eliciting tasks in both preschool and school-aged children (Calkins, 1997; Suess, Porges, & Plude, 1994), and during social approach (Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
BackgroundSchlueter, L. J., Hurwich‐Reiss, E., Stiles, A. A., Mendoza, M. M., Badanes, L. S., Dmitrieva, J., & Watamura, S. E. (2015) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2015.1036345 · Cited by 14
“…& Schamberg, 2009) and the Family Life Project (Blair et al., 2011)—and the sometimes complex relationships between stress physiology, emotionality, and self-regulation in children have been extensively studied (e.g., Kagan & Snidman, 1991; Kochanska, Coy, & Murray, 2001; Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
BackgroundDarling, L. N., Holochwost, S. J., Coffman, J. L., Propper, C. B., & Wagner, N. J. (2022) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22246 · Cited by 11
Profiles of reactivity in cocaine-exposed children
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“…1991), decreased behavior problems in preschool-aged children (Porges et al., 1996), and more adaptive behavior during attention and affect eliciting tasks in both preschool and school-aged children (Calkins, 1997; Suess, Porges, & Plude, 1994), and during social approach (Stifter & Corey, 2001).”
BackgroundIntimate Partner Violence, Parenting, and Children’s Representations of Caregivers
Zvara, B. J., Mills-Koonce, R., Feagans, L. V., Cox, M. J., Blair, C., Burchinal, P., Burton, L. M., Crnic, K. A., Crouter, A. C., Garrett-Peters, P., et al. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519888527 · Cited by 10
“The Infant Behavior Record (IBR; Bayley, 1969), adapted by Stifter and Corey (2001), was completed independently by both home visitors at 7 months.”
MethodInfant Emotion Development and Temperament
Aktar, E., & Pérez‐Edgar, K. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.026 · Cited by 17
“…(RSA) during baseline and more RSA suppression during emotionally arousing situations reflect more positive and responsive emotional states (Stifter & Corey, 2001), as well as better regulatory abilities (longer attention span, better soothability, and better dyadic synchrony; Calkins &…”
BackgroundThe epidemiology of observed temperament: Factor structure and demographic group differences
Willoughby, M. T., Stifter, C. A., & Gottfredson, N. C. (2015) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2015.02.001 · Cited by 10
Self-citationKiser, L. J., Fishbein, D. H., Gatzke‐Kopp, L. M., Vivrette, R. L., Creavey, K. L., Stevenson, J., Medoff, D. R., & Busuito, A. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01487-5 · Cited by 9
“When RSA withdrawal occurs during an effortful event, it is associated with engagement and enhanced attention to the challenge at hand (Stifter and Corey 2001).”
BackgroundCross-Cultural Perspectives on Parent–Infant Interactions
Bornstein, M. H., & Esposito, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.029 · Cited by 12
Rachwani, J., Hoch, J. E., & Adolph, K. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.017 · Cited by 9
DiCorcia, J. A., Sravish, A. V., & Tronick, E. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5605-6_4 · Cited by 9
Richards, J. E., & Conte, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.004 · Cited by 12
Spontaneous infant crying modulates vagal activity in real time
Madden‐Rusnak, A., Micheletti, M., Dominguez, A., & de Barbaro, K. (2023) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22428 · Cited by 8
Contributions of infant vagal regulation at 1 month to subsequent joint attention abilities
Mateus, V., Cruz, S., Ferreira‐Santos, F., Osório, A., Sampaio, A., & Martins, C. (2017) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21582 · Cited by 8
“…been linked to better social outcomes, asmore attentional control and soothability (Huffman et al., 1998), more positive and responsive behaviors (Stifter & Corey, 2001; Vaughan VanHecke et al., 2009), and fewer behavioral problems (Calkins &Dedmon, 2000; Calkins &Keane, 2004; Graziano &…”
BackgroundBehavioral Inhibition in Rodents: A Model to Study Causes and Health Consequences of Temperament
Cavigelli, S. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_3 · Cited by 9
Braaten, S. M., Nix, R. L., Gill, S., Hostetler, M. M., McNeil, C. B., Francis, L. A., Feinberg, M. E., & Stifter, C. A. (2025) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2025.02.012 · Cited by 7
Self-citationPinto, T. M., Nogueira‐Silva, C., & Figueiredo, B. (2023) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646838.2023.2257730 · Cited by 7
“Likewise, infant’s vagal regulation was associated with higher levels of self-regulation during infancy (Bazhenova et al., 2001; Ham & Tronick, 2006; Stifter & Corey, 2001), as well as in later ages (El-Sheikh et al., 2009; Graziano & Derefinko, 2013).”
Within-person changes in basal cortisol and caregiving modulate executive attention across infancy
Brandes-Aitken, A. N., Braren, S. H., Vogel, S. C., Perry, R. E., Brito, N. H., & Blair, C. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421000262 · Cited by 8
“Executive attention behaviors were assessed at 7-, 15-, and 24-months of age with the Infant Behavior Record (IBR; Bayley, 1969) as adapted for use by Stifter and Corey (2001) and completed independently by both RAs.”
MethodInfant Attachment (to Mother and Father) and Its Place in Human Development
Dagan, O., & Sagi‐Schwartz, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.025 · Cited by 6
Understanding and Evaluating the Moral World in Infancy
Hamlin, J. K., & Sitch, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.028 · Cited by 6
Infant Object Manipulation and Play
Tamis‐LeMonda, C. S., & Lockman, J. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.019 · Cited by 8
Behavioral and physiological stress responses: Within-person concordance during pregnancy
Vlisides‐Henry, R. D., Deboeck, P. R., Grill-Velasquez, W., Mackey, S., Ramadurai, D. K. A., Urry, J. O., Neff, D., Terrell, S., Gao, M. M., Thomas, L. R., et al. (2021) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108027 · Cited by 6
Distinct trajectories of caregiver–toddler physiological attunement during routine vaccinations
Lorenzo-Klas, M. G. D., Waxman, J. A., Flora, D. B., Schmidt, L. A., Garfield, H., Flanders, D., Weinberg, E., Savlov, D., & Riddell, R. P. (2023) · PAIN Reports · doi:10.1097/pr9.0000000000001077 · Cited by 6
“The ability to regulate from distress within pain contexts and beyond develops over the course of early childhood and plays an important role in a variety of developmental and psychosocial outcomes.(14,15,43) This study highlights patterns of caregiver–toddler distress responding that reflect a lowered capacity to cop…”
BackgroundAugustine, M. E., Moding, K. J., & Stifter, C. A. (2022) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2022.101725 · Cited by 6
Self-citationBerry, D. J., The Family Life Project Key Investigators, Vernon‐Feagans, L., Mills-Koonce, R., & Blair, C. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000488 · Cited by 5
Infant Vocal Learning and Speech Production
Warlaumont, A. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.022 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Stifter, C. A., & Corey, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Venue
- Social Development
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-05
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 189-201
- ISSN
- 0961-205X (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9507
- OpenAlex
- W1979228302
- Cited by
- 147
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 0.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Development (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- cardiac vagal tone, infant social behavior, social approach behavior, heart rate, cognitive challenge, stranger interaction, emotion regulation
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