CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 3,893Personality Traits and PsychologyPsychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionGrit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 236 of the 236 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?

Open access
Baumeister, Roy F., Campbell, Jennifer D., Krueger, Joachim I., Vohs, Kathleen D.·2003·Psychological Science in the Public Interest
DOI 10.1111/1529-1006.01431
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Self-esteem has become a household word. Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused efforts on boosting self-esteem, on the assumption that high self-esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits—an assumption that is critically evaluated in this review. Appraisal of the effects of self-esteem is complicated by several factors. Because many people with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize objective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a heterogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept their good qualities along with narcissistic, defensive, and conceited individuals. The modest correlations between self-esteem and school performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the result of good school performance. Efforts to boost the self-esteem of pupils have not been shown to improve academic performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, although the correlations vary widely, and the direction of causality has not been established. Occupational success may boost self-esteem rather than the reverse. Alternatively, self-esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory studies have generally failed to find that self-esteem causes good task performance, with the important exception that high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure. People high in self-esteem claim to be more likable and attractive, to have better relationships, and to make better impressions on others than people with low self-esteem, but objective measures disconfirm most of these beliefs. Narcissists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventually. Self-esteem has not been shown to predict the quality or duration of relationships. High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in groups and to criticize the group's approach. Leadership does not stem directly from self-esteem, but self-esteem may have indirect effects. Relative to people with low self-esteem, those with high self-esteem show stronger in-group favoritism, which may increase prejudice and discrimination. Neither high nor low self-esteem is a direct cause of violence. Narcissism leads to increased aggression in retaliation for wounded pride. Low self-esteem may contribute to externalizing behavior and delinquency, although some studies have found that there are no effects or that the effect of self-esteem vanishes when other variables are controlled. The highest and lowest rates of cheating and bullying are found in different subcategories of high self-esteem. Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness. Although the research has not clearly established causation, we are persuaded that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness. Low self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression under some circumstances. Some studies support the buffer hypothesis, which is that high self-esteem mitigates the effects of stress, but other studies come to the opposite conclusion, indicating that the negative effects of low self-esteem are mainly felt in good times. Still others find that high self-esteem leads to happier outcomes regardless of stress or other circumstances. High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex. If anything, high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity or drinking, but in general effects of self-esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females. Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic interventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self-esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved outcomes. In view of the heterogeneity of high self-esteem, indiscriminate praise might just as easily promote narcissism, with its less desirable consequences. Instead, we recommend using praise to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable behavior and self-improvement.

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/1529-1006.01431

Cites

236 of 236 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Citations

Cites

Show all 224 references

Research works printed but not linked: 26

  1. Abernathy T.J., 1995, Adolescence, 30, 899
  2. 10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358 · DOI · Paper page
  3. Bowles T., 1999, Journal of Applied Health Behaviour, 1, 1
  4. Branden N. (1984, August–September). In defense of self. Association for Humanistic Psychology, pp. 12–13.
  5. Brown J.D., 1998, The self
  6. 10.1037/0022-3514.55.6.991 · DOI · Paper page
  7. 10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.661 · DOI
  8. California Task Force to Promote Self-Esteem and Personal and Social Responsibility, 1990, Toward a state of self-esteem
  9. 10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1152 · DOI
  10. Crooks R., Baur K. (1999). Our sexuality (7th ed.). New York: Brooks/Cole.
  11. 10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.711 · DOI
  12. Emler N., 2001, Self-esteem: The costs and consequences of low self-worth
  13. Epstein R., 2001, Psychology Today, 34, 66
  14. Fishbein M., 1975, Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior
  15. Herer E., 1993, Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 2, 113
  16. Howerton D.L., 1994, Research in the Schools, 1, 23
  17. James K., 1997, Occupational Health, 2, 108
  18. Kirkpatrick L.A., 2001, Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2. Interpersonal processes, 411
  19. Mecca A.M., 1989, The social importance of self-esteem
  20. Ornish D., 1998, Love and survival
  21. Smelser N.J., 1989, The social importance of self-esteem, 1
  22. 10.1037/0022-3514.62.3.392 · DOI
  23. Trope Y., 1986, Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, 350
  24. Vohs K.D., Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
  25. Winegar K., 1990, Star Tribune
  26. Wylie R.C., 1979, The self-concept: Vol. 2. Theory and research on selected topics

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Items 501–600 of 1,013

Related

See all

Metadata

Authors
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D.
Affiliations
  • Florida State University (US)
  • University of British Columbia (CA)
  • Brown University (US)
  • University of Utah (US)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Science in the Public Interest
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2003-05
Volume
4
Issue
1
Pages
1-44
ISSN
  • 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
  • 1529-1006
DOI
10.1111/1529-1006.01431
OpenAlex
W2169757511
Cited by
3,893
References
224
Citations by year
2026: 100 · 2025: 155 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 230 · 2022: 215 · 2021: 234 · 2020: 284 · 2019: 243 · 2018: 216 · 2017: 215 · 2016: 213 · 2015: 223 · 2014: 198 · 2013: 200 · 2012: 183
FWCI
61.02
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Gothic.net (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Psychological Science
Funders
  • Foundations' Fund for Research in Psychiatry
  • National Institutes of Health (MH-57039)
  • Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (57039, 12794)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
Keywords
self-esteem, self-esteem intervention, narcissism, employee performance, interpersonal relationships, happiness, depression, buffer hypothesis, bullying, cheating, delinquency, aggression, in-group favoritism, prejudice, leadership, academic performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review