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Cited by 3,893Personality Traits and PsychologyPsychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionGrit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 236 of the 236 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?

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Baumeister, Roy F., Campbell, Jennifer D., Krueger, Joachim I., Vohs, Kathleen D.·2003·Psychological Science in the Public Interest
DOI 10.1111/1529-1006.01431
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Abstract

Self-esteem has become a household word. Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused efforts on boosting self-esteem, on the assumption that high self-esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits—an assumption that is critically evaluated in this review. Appraisal of the effects of self-esteem is complicated by several factors. Because many people with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize objective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a heterogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept their good qualities along with narcissistic, defensive, and conceited individuals. The modest correlations between self-esteem and school performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the result of good school performance. Efforts to boost the self-esteem of pupils have not been shown to improve academic performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, although the correlations vary widely, and the direction of causality has not been established. Occupational success may boost self-esteem rather than the reverse. Alternatively, self-esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory studies have generally failed to find that self-esteem causes good task performance, with the important exception that high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure. People high in self-esteem claim to be more likable and attractive, to have better relationships, and to make better impressions on others than people with low self-esteem, but objective measures disconfirm most of these beliefs. Narcissists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventually. Self-esteem has not been shown to predict the quality or duration of relationships. High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in groups and to criticize the group's approach. Leadership does not stem directly from self-esteem, but self-esteem may have indirect effects. Relative to people with low self-esteem, those with high self-esteem show stronger in-group favoritism, which may increase prejudice and discrimination. Neither high nor low self-esteem is a direct cause of violence. Narcissism leads to increased aggression in retaliation for wounded pride. Low self-esteem may contribute to externalizing behavior and delinquency, although some studies have found that there are no effects or that the effect of self-esteem vanishes when other variables are controlled. The highest and lowest rates of cheating and bullying are found in different subcategories of high self-esteem. Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness. Although the research has not clearly established causation, we are persuaded that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness. Low self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression under some circumstances. Some studies support the buffer hypothesis, which is that high self-esteem mitigates the effects of stress, but other studies come to the opposite conclusion, indicating that the negative effects of low self-esteem are mainly felt in good times. Still others find that high self-esteem leads to happier outcomes regardless of stress or other circumstances. High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex. If anything, high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity or drinking, but in general effects of self-esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females. Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic interventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self-esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved outcomes. In view of the heterogeneity of high self-esteem, indiscriminate praise might just as easily promote narcissism, with its less desirable consequences. Instead, we recommend using praise to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable behavior and self-improvement.

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Metadata

Authors
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D.
Affiliations
  • Florida State University (US)
  • University of British Columbia (CA)
  • Brown University (US)
  • University of Utah (US)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Science in the Public Interest
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2003-05
Volume
4
Issue
1
Pages
1-44
ISSN
  • 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
  • 1529-1006
DOI
10.1111/1529-1006.01431
OpenAlex
W2169757511
Cited by
3,893
References
224
Citations by year
2026: 100 · 2025: 155 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 230 · 2022: 215 · 2021: 234 · 2020: 284 · 2019: 243 · 2018: 216 · 2017: 215 · 2016: 213 · 2015: 223 · 2014: 198 · 2013: 200 · 2012: 183
FWCI
61.02
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Gothic.net (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Psychological Science
Funders
  • Foundations' Fund for Research in Psychiatry
  • National Institutes of Health (MH-57039)
  • Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (57039, 12794)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
Keywords
self-esteem, self-esteem intervention, narcissism, employee performance, interpersonal relationships, happiness, depression, buffer hypothesis, bullying, cheating, delinquency, aggression, in-group favoritism, prejudice, leadership, academic performance

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