Investigation of the moderation effect of gender and study level on the acceptance and use of generative AI by higher education students: Comparative evidence from Poland and Egypt

Strzelecki, Artur; ElArabawy, Sara

doi:10.1111/bjet.13425

Cited by 260Technology Adoption and User BehaviourArtificial Intelligence in EducationGender and Technology in Education

Investigation of the moderation effect of gender and study level on the acceptance and use of generative AI by higher education students: Comparative evidence from Poland and Egypt

Strzelecki, Artur, ElArabawy, Sara·2024·British Journal of Educational Technology

DOI 10.1111/bjet.13425

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Abstract

This study delves into the implications of incorporating AI tools, specifically ChatGPT, in higher education contexts. With a primary focus on understanding the acceptance and utilization of ChatGPT among university students, the research utilizes the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) as the guiding framework. The investigation probes into four crucial constructs of UTAUT—performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions—to understand their impact on the intent and actual use behaviour of students. The study relies on data collected from six universities in two countries and assessed through descriptive statistics and structural equation modelling techniques, and also takes into account participants' gender and study level. The key findings show that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence significantly influence behavioural intention. Furthermore, behavioural intention, when considered alongside facilitating conditions, influences actual use behaviour. This research also explores the moderating impact of gender and study level on the relationships among these variables. The results not only augment our comprehension of technology acceptance in the context of AI tools but also provide valuable input for formulating strategies that promote effective incorporation of ChatGPT in higher education. The study underscores the need for effective awareness initiatives, bespoke training programmes, and intuitive tool designs to bolster students' perceptions and foster the wider adoption of AI tools in education. Practitioner notes: What is already known about this topic: ChatGPT is a tool that is quickly gaining worldwide recognition. ChatGPT helps with writing essays and solving assignments. ChatGPT raises ethical concerns about authorship, plagiarism and ethics. What this paper adds: This study explores students' acceptance of ChatGPT as an aid in their education, which has not been studied previously. We used the extended Unified Technology Acceptance and Use of Technology theory to test what factors mostly influence the use of ChatGPT by students. We conducted a multiple study in Poland and Egypt based on sampling strategy from six universities. Implications for practice and/or policy: ChatGPT is a global game changer and should be incorporated into study programmes. The limitations of ChatGPT should be well explained and known since it is prone to making mistakes. Higher education teachers should be aware of ChatGPT's capabilities.

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Several studies highlight the importance of equitable access to licensed AI platforms, curated digital content, case studies, and lesson plan templates tailored for AI-enhanced teaching.
“Several studies highlight the importance of equitable access to licensed AI platforms, curated digital content, case studies, and lesson plan templates tailored for AI-enhanced teaching (Abduljawad, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024; Summers et al., 2024).”
From Six Institutional Intervention Areas to Support Ethical and Effective Student Use of Generative AI in Higher Education: A Narrative Review (2026) · cites this paper as Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024

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“…(e.g., genders and education levels) and application contexts (e.g., formal and informal settings) may influence their use of GenAI in learning (Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024), future research may explore how these differences shape students’ trust in, reliance on, and resistance to GenAI in…”
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
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“Recent research has also observed that PE is a significant predictor of behavioural intentions to use CG-AI tools in educational settings (Du & Lv, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024; Bouteraa et al., 2024).”
Influential
Can Generative <scp>AI</scp> Revolutionise Academic Skills Development in Higher Education? A Systematic Literature Review
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“…has shown a more consistent effect in the GenAI context, with studies generally reporting a significant relationship with behavioral intention, attitude toward use, or actual use (e.g., Albayati, 2024; Bouteraa et al., 2024; Dahri et al., 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024; Xu & Thien, 2024).”
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“Additionally, previous studies (e.g., Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024; Wang et al., 2024a, b) have reported mixed results regarding the role of gender in technology adoption, further indicating that its influence may be context-specific.”
Assessing teachers’ readiness and perceived usefulness of AI in education: an Estonian perspective
Granström, M., & Oppi, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1622240 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Parental AI Investment Behaviours and AI ‐Mediated Informal Digital Learning of English: The Chain Mediating Role of Children's Perceived AI Value and Effort Expectancy for AI
Liu, H. (2026) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1002/jcal.70198 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Examining the role of social influence, learning value and habit on students’ intention to use ChatGPT: the moderating effect of information accuracy in the UTAUT2 model
C., S. B. G., Bhandari, P., Gurung, S. K., Srivastava, E., Ojha, D., & Dhungana, B. R. (2024) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2024.2403287 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“…on developed countries with established English language dominance and clear AI integration guidelines in education (Polyportis & Pahos, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024), while less attention has been given to least-developed countries such as Nepal, where AI integration guidelines in…”
Generative AI in Higher Education: Demographic Differences in Student Perceived Readiness, Benefits, and Challenges
Maxwell, D., Oyarzun, B., Kim, S., & Bong, J. Y. (2025) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-025-01109-6 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Strzelecki and ElArabawy (2024) found gender to be an insignificant moderating factor in their Polish sample but partially significant in their Egyptian sample, prompting a call for additional research into ChatGPT usage by gender.”
Influential
International perspectives on artificial intelligence in higher education: An explorative study of students’ intention to use ChatGPT across the nordic countries and the USA
Faraon, M., Rönkkö, K., Milrad, M., & Tsui, E. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13492-x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“This result aligns with certain studies on ChatGPT (Habibi et al., 2023), but is in contrast to other studies examining both ChatGPT specifically (Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024) and AI technologies more broadly (Kwak et al., 2022; Tran et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022).”
How do Chinese undergraduates harness the potential of appraisal and emotions in generative AI-Powered learning? A multigroup analysis based on appraisal theory
Wang, C., & Yin, H. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105250 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The AI Motivation Scale (AIMS): a self-determination theory perspective
Li, J., King, R. B., Chai, C. S., Zhai, X., & Lee, V. W. Y. (2025) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2025.2478424 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Research has found that male students, those in STEM-related majors, and students from high SES backgrounds were more intrinsically motivated to learn with AI (Qazi et al., 2022; Strzelecki & El Arabawy, 2024; Wang et al., 2023).”
Assessing the usage of ChatGPT on life satisfaction among higher education students: The moderating role of subjective health
Rehman, A. U., Behera, R. K., Islam, M. S., Abbasi, F. A., & Imtiaz, A. (2024) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102655 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Are university teachers ready for generative artificial intelligence? Unpacking faculty anxiety in the ChatGPT era
Verano-Tacoronte, D., Bolívar-Cruz, A., & Sosa-Cabrera, S. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13585-7 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Research on ChatGPT adoption has predominantly focused on undergraduate students (e.g., Pasupuleti & Thiyyagura, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024), leaving university teachers as a relatively understudied group.”
Social influence and information quality on Generative AI use among business students
Changalima, I. A., Amani, D., & Ismail, I. J. (2024) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2024.101063 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
The Sustainable Integration of AI in Higher Education: Analyzing ChatGPT Acceptance Factors Through an Extended UTAUT2 Framework in Peruvian Universities
Ballesteros, M. A. A., Acosta-Enriquez, B. G., Farroñán, E. V. R., Juárez, H. D. G., Salinas, L. E. C., Sánchez, J. E. B., Castillo, J. C. A., Licapa-Redolfo, G. S., & Chilicaus, G. C. F. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su162310707 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Systematically visualizing ChatGPT used in higher education: Publication trend, disciplinary domains, research themes, adoption and acceptance
Ma, T. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100336 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
How sociodemographic factors relate to trust in artificial intelligence among students in Poland and the United Kingdom
Kozak, J., & Fel, S. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-80305-5 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“This corresponds with our findings, where British students demonstrated higher levels of trust 34 .”
Examining factors influencing university students’ adoption of generative artificial intelligence: a cross-country study
Zhao, L., Rahman, M. H., Yeoh, W., Wang, S., & Ooi, K. (2024) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2024.2427786 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Similarly, Strzelecki and ElArabawy (2024) examined ChatGPT adoption among university students in Poland and Egypt, finding that PE, EE, and Social Influence (SI) significantly influenced BI.”
Evaluating the Potential of Artificial Intelligence in Islamic Religious Education
Abubakari, M. S., Shafik, W., & Hidayatullah, A. F. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-2728-9.ch010 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Drivers of Acceptance of Generative AI Through the Lens of the Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
Ayyoub, A., Khlaif, Z., Hamamra, B., Bensalem, E., Mitwally, M., Sanmugam, M., Fteiha, A., Joma, A., Bsharat, T. R. K., Eidah, B. A., et al. (2025) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/hbe2/6265087 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Prediction of the Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence Through ChatGPT Among Costa Rican University Students: A PLS Model Based on UTAUT2
Almenara, J. C., Palacios‐Rodríguez, A., Guzmán, H. D. L. Á. R., & Scagliusi, M. V. F. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15063363 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
AI in academia: How do social influence, self-efficacy, and integrity influence researchers' use of AI models?
Acosta-Enriquez, B. G., Ballesteros, M. A. A., Pérez, C. R. V., Jordan, O. H., Vergara, J. A. M., Acosta, R. M., Várgas, C. G. A. P., & Castillo, J. C. A. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101274 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Depression and the use of conversational AI for companionship among college students: the mediating role of loneliness and the moderating effects of gender and mind perception
Lai, L., Pan, Y., Xu, R., & Jiang, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1580826 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Emerging Drivers of Adoption of Generative AI Technology in Education: A Review
Granić, A. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15136968 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Can generative artificial intelligence drive sustainable behavior? A consumer-adoption model for AI-driven sustainability recommendations
Silalahi, A. D. K. (2025) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.102995 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
ChatGPT in higher education: Investigating bachelor and master students’ expectations towards AI tool
Strzelecki, A. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13222-9 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…and social influence significantly impact the adoption intention of ChatGPT for all countries (Arthur et al., 2024; Budhathoki et al., 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024), whereas in Malaysia, elements from UTAUT2, such as hedonic motivation, habit, and facilitating conditions, impact…”
Self-citation
AcademAI: Investigating AI Usage, Attitudes, and Literacy in Higher Education and Research
Brown, R., Sillence, E., & Branley-Bell, D. (2025) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/00472395251347304 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“…uence ’ plays a pivotal role in shaping student intention to use ChatGPT, suggesting that promoting the responsible use of AI can be achieved by encouraging staff and fellow students who are already using AI effectively to advocate its use among more reluctant peers (Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
Technology Acceptance Model in Artificial Intelligence in Education: A Meta-Analysis
Xue, L., Mahat, J., & Ghazali, N. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251409441 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“These challenges indicate that understanding the factors influencing AI acceptance in education has become crucial for promoting its effective integration and ensuring that the benefits of AI are broadly accessible to learners and educators (Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024; Sun et al., 2024).”
‘As of my last knowledge update’: How is content generated by ChatGPT infiltrating scientific papers published in premier journals?
Strzelecki, A. (2024) · Learned Publishing · doi:10.1002/leap.1650 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“It is a sophisticated AI-tool developed by OpenAI and was the ﬁ rst of its kind to become widely popular, and has been used widely in schools, universities, and businesses (Deike, 2024; Go ł ą b-Andrzejak, 2023; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
Self-citation
Is Anxiety Affecting the Adoption of ChatGPT in University Teaching? A Gender Perspective
Cruz, A. M. B., & Tacoronte, D. V. (2025) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-025-09830-0 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“It is worth noting that while research on ChatGPT adoption has mostly focused on students (Pasupuleti & Thiyyagura, 2024 ; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024 ), uni - versity faculty have received significantly less attention, which is reflected in the scarcity of work, especially empirical work in this…”
Influence of AI literacy and 21st-century skills on the acceptance of generative artificial intelligence among college students
Salhab, R. A., & Aboushi, M. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1640212 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Generative AI and Media Content Creation: Investigating the Factors Shaping User Acceptance in the Arab Gulf States
Ali, M. S. M., Wasel, K. Z. A., & Abdelhamid, A. M. M. (2024) · Journalism and Media · doi:10.3390/journalmedia5040101 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Integrating AI in Education: An Analysis of Factors Influencing the Acceptance, Concerns, Attitudes, Competencies and Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence Among Polish Teachers
Tomczyk, Ł., & Majkut, A. (2025) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/hbe2/5599169 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A systematic review of gender differences in students’ use of AI tools for learning in higher education
Matobobo, C. (2026) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-026-01116-6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Additionally, some studies [10, 12] report no significant gender differences in perceived effectiveness, complicating the narrative that contextual factors, such as the field of study [7, 13] or prior exposure to technology [14] may mediate these relationships.”
AI chatbots: A disguised enemy for academic integrity?
Niloy, A. C., Hafiz, R., Hossain, B. M., Gulmeher, F., Sultana, N., Islam, K. F., Bushra, F., Islam, S., Hoque, S. I., Rahman, M., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100396 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Exploring Factors Influencing Continuance Intention of Pre-Service Teachers in Using Generative Artificial Intelligence
Zheng, W., Ma, Z., Sun, J., Wu, Q., & Hu, Y. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2433300 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Previous studies have examined the acceptance of GAI by various participants in the field of higher education, including college teachers (Al Darayseh, 2023; Ayanwale et al., 2022) and college students (Esiyok et al., 2024; Ofosu-Ampong et al., 2023; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
What is the influence of psychosocial factors on artificial intelligence appropriation in college students?
Acosta-Enriquez, B. G., Valle, M. D. L. Á. G., Ballesteros, M. A. A., Castillo, J. C. A., Várgas, C. G. A. P., Torres, I. S., León, P. M. S., & Tirado, K. S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-02328-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
What Factors Affect the Adoption Intention and Actual Use of ChatGPT in Higher Education? The Moderating Role of Academic Integrity
Subhani, F., Khan, S., Sandhu, M., & Shahzad, M. (2025) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-025-01096-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This is especially true in environments where peer opinion is highly valued, such as workplaces or academic settings (Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
Teachers’ artificial intelligence (AI) literacy: an exploratory study
Deshen, M., Harari, R., & Aharony, N. (2026) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-026-00433-5 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“These variables were selected based on previous studies (e.g., Ma & Huo, 2023; Strzelecki, 2023; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024) that demonstrate associations between AI acceptance and AI usage.”
Influential
A study on students' behavioural intention and use behaviour of artificial intelligence-generated content in physical education: Employing an extended the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology model
Wu, Q., Li, S., Xin, S., Hou, Q., & Li, P. (2025) · Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport & Tourism Education · doi:10.1016/j.jhlste.2025.100547 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Academics as adopters of generative AI: an application of diffusion of innovations theory
Singh, S., & Strzelecki, A. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13835-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Such research works using student samples are numerous; among those fundamental in this area are Strzelecki and ElArabawy (2024), Salifu et al. (2024), Mohamed (2025), Abbas et al. (2024), Chopra et al. (2025), and the latest global study (Ravšelj et al., 2025).”
Self-citation
Developing a multilevel framework for AI integration in technical and engineering higher education: insights from bibliometric analysis and ethnographic research
Abbasnejad, B., Soltani, S., Taghizadeh, F., & Ali, Z. (2025) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-12-2024-0314 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Educators’ perceptions and willingness to integrate Generative Artificial Intelligence in teaching and research: evidence from Kenyan higher education
Wainaina, P. K., & Sun, Y. (2025) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-025-00820-z · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“These tools also enable personalized learning support, offering new approaches to curriculum delivery and learner engagement [62, 70].”
Exploring teachers' artificial intelligence awareness
Uygun, D., AKTAŞ, İ., Duygulu, İ., & Köseer, N. (2024) · Advances in Mobile Learning Educational Research · doi:10.25082/amler.2024.02.004 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“In the study conducted by Strzelecki (2024), it was stated that providing training on AI to teachers can alleviate their concerns about AI.”
Background
Transformative learning with ChatGPT: analyzing adoption trends and implications for business management students in India
Sudan, T., Hans, A., & Taggar, R. (2024) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-10-2023-0202 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Six Institutional Intervention Areas to Support Ethical and Effective Student Use of Generative AI in Higher Education: A Narrative Review
Jayasinghe, S., Gamage, K. A. A., Yang, D., Cheng, C., Disanayake, C., & Apeji, U. D. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16010137 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Understanding Student Attitudes toward GenAI Tools: A Comparative Study of Serbia and Austria
Adžić, S., Tot, T. S., Vuković, V., Radanov, P., & Avakumović, J. (2024) · International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science Engineering and Education · doi:10.23947/2334-8496-2024-12-3-583-611 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Aligning and comparing values of ChatGPT and human as learning facilitators: A value‐sensitive design approach
Shen, Y., Tang, L., Le, H., Tan, S., Zhao, Y., Shen, K., Li, X., Juelich, T., Wang, Q., Gašević, D., et al. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13562 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Critical factors for why ChatGPT enhances learning engagement and outcomes
Wu, C., & Ho, V. T. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13346-6 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…have applied UTAUT to understand the adoption of AI tools like ChatGPT in educational settings, highlighting the significance of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions in shaping user intentions (Biloš & Budimir, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
What motivates academics in Egypt toward generative AI tools? An integrated model of TAM, SCT, UTAUT2, perceived ethics, and academic integrity
Eldakar, M. A. M., Shehata, A. M. K., & Ammar, A. S. A. (2025) · Information Development · doi:10.1177/02666669251314859 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“It is widely applied in the higher education setting (Bin-Nashwan et al., 2023; Strzelecki and ElArabawy, 2024), making it an ideal tool to investigate the relationships hypothesized in this study.”
Influential
Toward Sustainable Education: A Contextualized Model for Educational Technology Adoption for Developing Countries
Sabiteka, M., Yu, X., & Sun, C. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17083592 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Cross-cultural perspectives on AI adoption in teacher education: a comparative study of pre-service teachers in Turkey and the United Arab Emirates
Konca, A. S., Simsar, A., Alhajji, R., & Almansoori, A. G. A. M. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2488143 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“In the context of AI in education, this implies that if AI tools are perceived as useful in improving teaching methods or learning processes, their adoption and continued use are more likely (Strzelecki, 2023; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
Influential
A Systematic Review of UTAUT and UTAUT2 for AI Adoption in Education
Xue, L., Ghazali, N., & Mahat, J. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2552867 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Recent studies have employed UTAUT to examine the adoption of AI tools such as AI Learning Platform (Xiaohong et al., 2025) and AI chatbots like ChatGPT (Strzelecki, 2024a, 2024b, 2024c; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024; Strzelecki et al., 2024).”
Exploring Human-AI Collaboration in Higher Education
Mishra, M., Ara, A., & Mishra, S. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-7332-3.ch028 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Motivational and appraisal factors shaping generative AI use and intention in Austrian higher education students and teachers
Kinskofer, F., & Tulis, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1677827 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Examining the association between emotional intelligence and chatbot utilization in education: A cross-sectional examination of undergraduate students in the UAE
Mosleh, S. M., Alsaadi, F. A., Alnaqbi, F. K., Alkhzaimi, M. A., Alnaqbi, S. W., & Alsereidi, W. M. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31952 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“A recent study revealed that the performance expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions outlined in the UTAUT model contribute to increased student and teacher engagement in learning technologies such as chatbots [18,35,36].”
Background
Threading the GenAI needle: Unpacking the ups and downs of GenAI for higher education stakeholders
Neupane, A., Shahi, T. B., Cowling, M., & Tanna, D. (2024) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2024.7.2.4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
ChatGPT and AI Chatbots in Education: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews, Scoping Reviews, and Meta-Analyses
Milakis, E. D., Argyrakou, C. C., Melidis, A., & Vrettaros, J. (2025) · International Journal of Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.46300/9109.2025.19.11 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Factors Influencing Generative AI Usage Intention in China: Extending the Acceptance–Avoidance Framework with Perceived AI Literacy
Liu, C., Yang, L., Dong, X., & Li, X. (2025) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems13080639 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The role of ChatGPT in enhancing EFL students’ ESP writing skills: an experimental study of gender and major differences
Jmaiel, H. A., Abukhait, R. O., Mohamed, A. M. A., Shaaban, T. S. K., Al-khresheh, M. H., & AL-Qadri, A. H. (2025) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-025-00700-6 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Additionally, Strzelecki and ElArabawy [34] examined how gender and education affect Polish and Egyptian students’ use of generative AI platforms like Chat-GPT.”
Understanding the adoption of educational AI tools in Sub-Saharan African higher education: a theory of planned behaviour-based analysis
Malik, I. A., Adem, S. A., & Rasool, A. (2025) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2025.2546126 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Students’ little helper: Investigating continuous-use determinants of generative AI and ethical judgment
Holzmann, P., Gregori, P., & Schwarz, E. J. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13708-0 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“This positive relationship between higher levels of effort expectancy and enhanced behavioral intention to adopt AI in the context of education has been supported by recent research (Duong et al., 2023; Strzelecki, 2023; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024 ; Yakubu et al., 2025).”
Influential
Prioritizing Ethical Conundrums in the Utilization of ChatGPT in Education through an Analytical Hierarchical Approach
Bukar, U., Sayeed, M. S., Razak, S. F. A., Yogarayan, S., & Sneesl, R. (2024) · Education sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14090959 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Latent profiles of AI learning conditions among university students: Implications for educational intentions
Ishmuradova, I. I., Chistyakov, A. A., Brodskaya, T. A., Kosarenko, N. N., Savchenko, N. V., & Shindryaeva, N. N. (2025) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/15907 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Improving students’ generative AI literacy: A single workshop can improve confidence and understanding
Sullivan, M., McAuley, M., Degiorgio, D., & McLaughlan, P. (2024) · Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2024.7.2.7 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Gender perceptions of generative AI in higher education
Al‐Samarraie, H., Sarsam, S. M., Alzahrani, A. I., Chatterjee, A., & Swinnerton, B. J. (2024) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-02-2024-0109 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Assessing ChatGPT acceptance and use in education: a comparative study among german-speaking students and teachers
Dietrich, L. K., & Grassini, S. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13658-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Facilitating Conditions mostly do not seem to impact the intention to use Chat - GPT (Grassini et al., 2024; Strzelecki, 2023, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
Influential
Exploring the acceptance of ChatGPT in higher education: a comprehensive quantitative study of university students and faculty
Kaya, M. H., & Adıgüzel, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1652292 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Investigating ChatGPT Methods in the Higher Education Form a Student Engagement Perspective: Based on a Descriptive-Cross-Sectional Study
Bhuiyan, M. R. I., Uddin, S., Sultana, T., Amin, A. A. A., & Islam, M. M. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251413008 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The deployment of tools such as ChatGPT is not straightforward in higher education and many challenges need to be rigorously examined (Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”
The role of AI characteristics and their influence on higher education students’ continuance intention to use GenAI tools
Singh, S., & Paiva, J. (2025) · Information Discovery and Delivery · doi:10.1108/idd-03-2025-0060 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Adapting teaching and learning with existing generative AI by higher education students: comparative study of Zayed university and king Abdulaziz university
Tbaishat, D., Amoudi, G., & Elfadel, M. (2025) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100421 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Perceptions of Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI), Behavioral Intention, and Use Experience as Predictors of University Students’ Learning Agency in Generative AI-Supported Contexts
Xia, L., An, X., Li, X., & Dong, Y. (2025) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331251382853 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…intention to use generative AI and actual usage behavior has been examined, it is important to highlight that previous studies have primarily represented usage behavior in terms of frequency (Duong et al., 2023; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024), rather than focusing on students ’ agentic actions.”
AI-supported problem-based learning for enhancing computational thinking skills in STEM education
Ayanwale, M. A., & Omeh, C. B. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2026.100263 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Developing a foundation for the informational needs of generative AI users through the means of established interdisciplinary relationships
Fruehauf, E., Beman-Cavallaro, A., & Schmidt, L. (2024) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2024.102876 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The perceived coolness of using virtual reality technology in blended learning performance can improve learning motivation and learning satisfaction
Liu, X., Zhang, H., & Liu, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1346467 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Empowering STEM teachers’ professional learning through GenAI: The roles of task-technology fit, cognitive appraisal, and emotions
Zhu, Y., Jiang, H., & Chugh, R. (2025) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2025.105204 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Factors influencing the adoption of generative AI in education: A systematic review, proposed framework and future research agenda
Tan, Q. (2025) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.70059 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Unraveling the influential factors driving persistent adoption of ChatGPT in learning environments
Moghavvemi, S., & Jam, F. A. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13662-x · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“More recently, studies have increasingly applied the UTAUT framework (Venkatesh et al., 2003) to investigate the acceptance and use of emerging chatbot technologies, such as ChatGPT (Bouteraa et al., 2024; Strzelecki, 2024; Strzelecki & ElArabawy, 2024).”

Determinants of ChatGPT Adoption in Higher Education Students: A UTAUT Framework Analysis
Wijaya, L., Cheng, K. M., Lasian, L., Lestari, M. I., Wahono, J. W., & Anisa, N. N. (2025) · International Conference on Creative Communication and Innovative Technology (ICCIT) · doi:10.1109/iccit65724.2025.11167221 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Exploring the acceptance of ChatGPT in higher education: a comprehensive quantitative study of university students and faculty
Kaya, M. H., & Adıgüzel, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1652292 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Adoption of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Insights from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Model
Wahdah, S. I., Kurniawan, R. Y., & Irawan, N. (2025) · Indonesian Journal on Learning and Advanced Education (IJOLAE) · doi:10.23917/ijolae.v7i2.9743 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Studying the Impact of Perceived Usefulness, Ease of Use, and Trust on Attitude, Intention, and Behaviour to Use the AI ChatGPT Application in the Education Environment: An Exploratory Study
Kadhim, H. M. (2026) · International Journal of Management and Economics Invention · doi:10.47191/ijmei/v12i4.09
Students’ Acceptance of ChatGPT in Higher Education: An Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
Strzelecki, A. (2024) · Innovative Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10755-023-09686-1 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Self-citation

Authors: Strzelecki, A., & ElArabawy, S.
Affiliations: University of Economics in Katowice (PL)
British University in Egypt (EG)
Corresponding author: Strzelecki, Artur
ORCID: Strzelecki, Artur
ElArabawy, Sara
Venue: British Journal of Educational Technology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2024-01-04
Volume: 55
Issue: 3
Pages: 1209-1230
ISSN: 0007-1013 (ISSN-L)
1467-8535
DOI: 10.1111/bjet.13425
OpenAlex: W4390609372
Semantic Scholar: a2f03ff74dc1ee8bd8b6ccfbcbb931f58c93db4b
Cited by: 260
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 87 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 44
FWCI: 97.02
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm)
Locations: British Journal of Educational Technology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Technology Adoption and User Behaviour
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Technology in Education
Keywords: generative AI, ChatGPT, technology acceptance, UTAUT, university students, gender differences, study level, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, behavioral intention, artificial intelligence in education, Poland, Egypt

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Investigation of the moderation effect of gender and study level on the acceptance and use of generative AI by higher education students: Comparative evidence from Poland and Egypt

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