Satellite‐based estimates reveal widespread forest degradation in the Amazon
Abstract
Anthropogenic and natural forest disturbance cause ecological damage and carbon emissions. Forest disturbance in the Amazon occurs in the form of deforestation (conversion of forest to non-forest land covers), degradation from the extraction of forest resources, and destruction from natural events. The crucial role of the Amazon rainforest in the hydrologic cycle has even led to the speculation of a disturbance "tipping point" leading to a collapse of the tropical ecosystem. Here we use time series analysis of Landsat data to map deforestation, degradation, and natural disturbance in the Amazon Ecoregion from 1995 to 2017. The map was used to stratify the study area for selection of sample units that were assigned reference labels based on their land cover and disturbance history. An unbiased statistical estimator was applied to the sample of reference observations to obtain estimates of area and uncertainty at biennial time intervals. We show that degradation and natural disturbance, largely during periods of severe drought, have affected as much of the forest area in the Amazon Ecoregion as deforestation from 1995 to 2017. Consequently, an estimated 17% (1,036,800 ± 24,800 km 2 , 95% confidence interval) of the original forest area has been disturbed as of 2017. Our results suggest that the area of disturbed forest in the Amazon is 44%-60% more than previously realized, indicating an unaccounted for source of carbon emissions and pervasive damage to forest ecosystems.
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In many tropical forest regions, the area of degraded forests could equal or exceed the area of deforestation.
“Still, at least in many tropical forest regions, the area of degraded forests could well equal or even exceed the area of deforestation (15,16);”
From Restoring Degraded Lands (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
Within the remaining Amazon forest area, 17% has been degraded by human disturbances such as logging, edge effects and understory fires.
“Within the remaining Amazon forest area, 17% has been degraded by human disturbances38, such as logging, edge effects and understory fires, but if we consider also the impacts from repeated extreme drought events in the past decades, 38% of the Amazon could be degraded39.”
From Critical transitions in the Amazon forest system (2024) · cites this paper as [38]
Road networks facilitate illegal activities, promoting more deforestation, logging and fire spread throughout the core of the Amazon forest.
“Road networks (Fig. 1d) facilitate illegal activities, promoting more deforestation, logging and fire spread throughout the core of the Amazon forest38,39.”
From Critical transitions in the Amazon forest system (2024) · cites this paper as [38]
Roads carving through the forest are sources of illegal activities such as logging and burning, which increase forest flammability.
“For instance, roads carving through the forest are well-known sources of illegal activities, such as logging and burning, which increase forest flammability38,39.”
From Critical transitions in the Amazon forest system (2024) · cites this paper as [38]
An additional 38% of the forest biome has been damaged by extreme droughts, fires, logging and edge effects.
“An additional 38% of the forest biome has been damaged by extreme droughts, fires, logging and edge effects38,39.”
From Critical transitions in the Amazon forest system (2024) · cites this paper as [38]
Cites
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The drivers and impacts of Amazon forest degradation
Lapola, D. M., Pinho, P., Barlow, J., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Berenguer, E., Carmenta, R., Liddy, H. M., Seixas, H., Silva, C. V. J., Silva-Junior, C. H. L., et al. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abp8622 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
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Norris, D., Sabadini Carvalho, T., Guerrero, A. M., Sobral Escada, M. I., Alencar, A., Kimbrough, L., & Butler, R. A. (2022) · Tropical Conservation Science · doi:10.1177/19400829221132193 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bullock, E. L., Woodcock, C. E., Souza, C., & Olofsson, P.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Instituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente da Amazônia – Imazon Belém Brazil
- Corresponding author
- Bullock, Eric L.
- Venue
- Global Change Biology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-03-06
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 2956-2969
- ISSN
- 1354-1013 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2486
- OpenAlex
- W3004799420
- Cited by
- 240
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 16 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 14.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Global Change Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Geological Survey (G12PC00070)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (16‐EARTH16F‐295, NNX16AP26G)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Remote Sensing in Agriculture
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Keywords
- forest degradation, Amazon rainforest, deforestation, natural disturbance, drought, CO2 emissions, Landsat time series, forest area estimation
- MeSH terms
- Carbon, Conservation of Natural Resources, Ecosystem, Forests, Rainforest
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