Restoring Degraded Lands

The shift from conventional agriculture to regenerative (or conservation) agriculture is universally applicable.

“The shift from conventional agriculture, characterized by frequent tillage and complete removal of vegetation for parts of the season, to regenerative (or conservation) agriculture is particularly promising and universally applicable (104).”

• cites [104] sourceDisputed

  Section 5.6, “Practices of sustainable agriculture” (page unavailable), says practices must be tailored to each case and that there is no “one size fits all” approach. Section 5.6.1, “Conservation agriculture” (page unavailable), also reports variable outcomes depending on conditions, contrary to the claim of universal applicability. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Land conversions and land management almost equally cause the differences in carbon storage between the theoretical absence of land use and current conditions.

“Land conversions (i.e., replacement of forests with cropland and pastures) and land management [i.e., harvesting of timber from managed forests or removal of herbaceous biomass through grazing (9)] almost equally cause these differences.”

• cites [9] sourceSupported

Land degradation is of great concern for oceans, manifested by the now more than 500 dead coastal marine zones where excessive nutrient runoff from agriculture has contributed to the collapse of coastal marine ecosystems.

“For instance, land degradation is of great concern for oceans, manifested by the now more than 500 dead coastal marine zones where excessive nutrient runoff from agriculture has contributed to the collapse of coastal marine ecosystems (5).”

• cites [5] sourcePartly supported

  The passages labeled Abstract (page unavailable) link agricultural runoff and nutrient inputs to coastal hypoxia and report massive coral-reef mortality in a documented event. But the paper lists 494 coastal dead zones, not more than 500, and does not say that agricultural runoff caused the collapse of ecosystems in all of them. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Removal of deadwood as part of forest management is associated with reduced habitat diversity for numerous species.

“Removal of deadwood as part of forest management has also been associated with reducing habitat diversity for numerous species (20).”

• cites [20] sourceSupported

Grassland established after deforestation is estimated at 11.3 Mkm2 in 2000.

“The latter is estimated at 11.3 Mkm 2 in 2000 (9)”

• cites [9] sourcePartly supported

  Extended Data Table 1 gives an area of 11.3 Mkm² for artificial grasslands, and Methods (‘Actual biomass stock maps 1 and 2’) defines these as grasslands on potentially forested areas. The paper describes the underlying land-use dataset as present-day and derived from a year-2000 dataset, but does not explicitly date the 11.3 Mkm² estimate to 2000. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Converted grassland holds biomass stocks less than 10% of the potential biomass stock.

“Converted grassland holds biomass stocks that are less than 10% of the potential biomass stock (9).”

• cites [9] sourceSupported

Residue removal or whole-tree harvest can cause soil disturbance and remove root, stump, or bark biomass that would otherwise contribute to soil organic matter cycling, including recalcitrant carbon pools.

“Likewise, residue removal or whole-tree harvest can also cause soil disturbance, and remove root, stump, or bark biomass that would otherwise be part of soil organic matter cycling, including the formation of recalcitrant carbon pools (19).”

• cites [19] sourcePartly supported

  Section 5 (Removal of harvest residues; page unavailable) identifies bark and roots as harvest residues and says stump harvesting causes additional soil disturbance and reduces root litter input. It does not establish that residue removal or whole-tree harvesting generally causes that disturbance. Section 5.2 (Gaps in knowledge and research needs; page unavailable) says the effects of residue management on labile and recalcitrant carbon pools need further study, so the claim about formation of recalcitrant pools is not established. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Intensively used grasslands are relatively species-poor.

“Intensively used grasslands are relatively species-poor (34)”

• cites [34] sourcePartly supported

  The Results text (page not available in our copy) says land-use intensification reduced species richness for most aboveground groups. But it reports neutral or positive effects on belowground organisms, so the unqualified claim that intensively used grasslands are relatively species-poor overgeneralizes the finding. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The extent of permanent pastures and meadows spans 28 to 34 Mkm2, including extensively used natural grasslands, intensively managed pastures and meadows established in natural grassland areas, and grassland established after deforestation.

“The extent of permanent pastures and meadows, the key category for which global statistical data are available (http://faostat.fao.org;any grazing land used for more than five consecutive years), spans 28 (33) to 34 Mkm², including extensively used natural grasslands (Section 2.2), intensively managed pastures and meadows established in natural grassland areas, as well as grassland that was estab”

• cites [33] sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.1 (§32) estimates 28.0 million km² of pasture and reports FAOSTAT’s 34.4 million km²; section 2.2 (§12) defines permanent pasture to include cultivated and wild forage land. Section 4.2 (§36) describes pasture replacing grasslands and forests. But the Discussion (§45) says the pasture data reveal nothing about grazing intensity, so the claim that pastures established in natural grassland areas are intensively managed is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

At present humans withdraw approximately 2,500-3,200 km3 a-1.

“Given that at present humans withdraw approximately 2,500-3,200 km 3 a -1 , these numbers paint at first sight a relatively encouraging picture.”

• cites [55] sourceCould not verify

  The ‘A Basis for a PB on Water’ section gives 3,200 km³/year as a modeled planetary-boundary estimate, not a measurement of present human withdrawals. The ‘Model Variability and Limitations’ section reports runoff and water-availability estimates. Searches for 2,500 and current withdrawals found no passage giving the claimed withdrawal range; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Approximately half of the rise in global CH4 emissions since 2007 comes from the increasing number of ruminant livestock.

“Approximately half of the rise since 2007 comes from the increasing number of ruminant livestock, whereas the other half has uncertain origins.”

• cites [50] sourcePartly supported

  Section 6.1 says expanding tropical ruminant populations may have contributed to methane growth, and the discussion says cattle probably contribute alongside wetlands. Section 5 says the relative causes of the rise are not yet constrained. The paper does not assign approximately half of the rise since 2007 to livestock or identify the other half as having uncertain origins. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Only 37% of rivers longer than 1,000 km remain free-flowing over their entire length, often in very remote regions.

“Only 37% of rivers longer than 1,000 km remain free-flowing over their entire length, often in very remote regions (57).”

• cites [57] sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (p. 3) says that 36% of rivers longer than 1,000 km remain free-flowing along their full length, not 37%. The Main Text (p. 6) supports the location claim, saying that these rivers remain prevalent only in remote or less-developed areas. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Restoring already degraded wetlands has large potential to improve conditions for biodiversity.

“Restoring already degraded wetlands can sequester carbon on a century scale, albeit at an often relatively slow pace and possibly at the expense of increased CH 4 emissions (53), but with large potential to improve conditions for biodiversity (54).”

• cites [54] sourceSupported

Dam building for irrigation is expected to disproportionately impact South America, south and east Asia, and the Balkan region.

“The availability and quality of freshwater is projected to continue to decline in the future due to extraction for irrigation, drinking water, and energy, pollution, and increased shipping, with dam building for irrigation expected to disproportionately impact South America, south and east Asia, and the Balkan region (59).”

• cites [59] sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract identifies South America, South and East Asia, and the Balkan region as areas disproportionately affected by dam development. But it specifies hydropower dams and impacts on freshwater megafauna richness, not dams built for irrigation or a general decline in freshwater availability and quality. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Freshwater availability and quality are projected to continue declining due to extraction for irrigation, drinking water, and energy, pollution, and increased shipping.

“The availability and quality of freshwater is projected to continue to decline in the future due to extraction for irrigation, drinking water, and energy, pollution, and increased shipping, with dam building for irrigation expected to disproportionately impact South America, south and east Asia, and the Balkan region (59).”

• cites [59] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports that dam construction can affect water use and availability and deteriorate water quality. It does not project an overall decline in freshwater availability and quality caused by extraction for irrigation or drinking water, pollution, and increased shipping. The paper identifies South America, South and East Asia, and the Balkans as areas disproportionately affected by hydropower development, not dam building for irrigation. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Based on estimated global blue water runoff of approximately 42,000 km3 a-1, a sustainable level of human use may be 1,200-8,300 km3 a-1 depending on the chosen criteria.

“On the basis of estimated global blue water runoff (approximately 42,000 km 3 a -1 ), a sustainable level of human use may be 1,200-8,300 km 3 a -1 (55), depending on the chosen criteria.”

• cites [55] sourceSupported

The other half of the rise in global CH4 emissions since 2007 has uncertain origins.

“Approximately half of the rise since 2007 comes from the increasing number of ruminant livestock, whereas the other half has uncertain origins.”

• cites [50] sourcePartly supported

  Section 5 says the causes of methane’s rise are not fully understood and that evidence is insufficient to determine the relative contributions of sources and sinks. Section 6.1 discusses expanding ruminant populations as one possible contributor, but the paper does not establish that ruminants account for half the rise or define a remaining half of uncertain origin. The uncertainty is supported; the numerical split is not. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Projected increases in drought severity can also increase the incidence and extent of wildfires.

“The projected increases in drought severity can also increase the incidence and extent of wildfires (73,74).”

• cites [73] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [74] sourceSupported

Under SSP3, by 2050 the number of people in dryland areas exposed to higher drought intensity and water stress at 2°C warming would be increased to 1,267 million.

“Projections show that under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) SSP2 (a “middle of the road” scenario), by 2050 approximately 1,152 million people in dryland areas alone will be exposed to higher drought intensity and water stress at 2°C warming, whereas this number would be reduced to 974 million people under SSP1 (“sustainable” scenario) and increased to 1,267 million people in an SSP3 (“frag”

• cites [70] sourceCould not verify

  Section 3.1 discusses drought intensity and water stress, but does not give a population estimate for dryland areas; it also says arid areas were masked out for the drought-intensity indicator. Section 3.3 compares population exposure across SSPs and warming levels, but does not report 1,267 million people under SSP3 for this combination of hazards. Searches for the figure and for dryland exposure found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [71] Hurlbert M, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Changes in fire regimes can contribute to a shift in vegetation composition, as more frequent fires, especially those coinciding with drought or insect outbreaks, suppress seedling regeneration and push closed forests toward more open forest-steppe systems.

“Changes in fire regimes can also contribute to a shift in vegetation composition, as more frequent fires, especially those coinciding with drought or insect outbreaks, suppress seedling regeneration and push, for example, closed forests toward more open forest-steppe systems (77,78).”

• cites [77] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [78] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Drought impacts can be alleviated by SLM practices, such as cover crops, mulching, supplementary irrigation if surface or groundwater sources are available, or selection of drought-tolerant crop and forest species.

“Furthermore, drought impacts can be alleviated by SLM practices, such as use of cover crops and mulching, supplementary irrigation if surface or groundwater sources are available, or the selection of drought-tolerant crop and forest species (66).”

• cites [66] sourcePartly supported

  The available Abstract passage links agricultural drought to rainwater losses and says mulching can improve water availability, supporting that example. It does not establish the other listed practices—cover crops, supplementary irrigation, or selection of drought-tolerant crop and forest species—and the passage ends mid-sentence. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Under SSP1, by 2050 the number of people in dryland areas exposed to higher drought intensity and water stress at 2°C warming would be reduced to 974 million.

“Projections show that under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) SSP2 (a “middle of the road” scenario), by 2050 approximately 1,152 million people in dryland areas alone will be exposed to higher drought intensity and water stress at 2°C warming, whereas this number would be reduced to 974 million people under SSP1 (“sustainable” scenario) and increased to 1,267 million people in an SSP3 (“frag”

• cites [70] sourceCould not verify

  Section 3.3 discusses how exposure and vulnerability differ across SSP scenarios, and Section 3.1 discusses water stress and drought intensity. Neither gives a projection of 974 million people in dryland areas exposed to both hazards under SSP1 at 2°C. Searches for “974,” “drylands,” and the combined hazard description found no matching estimate in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [71] Hurlbert M, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In drylands, the land area annually experiencing droughts has already increased by approximately 50% since 1961.

“In drylands, the land area annually experiencing droughts has already increased by approximately 50% since 1961 (69).”

• cites [69] sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction defines drought and distinguishes it from aridity, but does not report a trend in the annual area affected by drought in drylands. Searches for the claimed 50% increase since 1961 found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In many regions, leaf-area index and land ecosystem carbon uptake have increased over recent decades, partly due to the CO2 fertilization effect.

“In many regions, for example, leaf-area index and land ecosystem carbon uptake have increased over recent decades, partly due to the CO 2 fertilization effect (60,62).”

• cites [60] sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports widespread increases in leaf-area index during 1982–2009 and attributes much of the greening trend to CO2 fertilization. It also describes a modeled increase in leaf-level carbon assimilation in response to rising CO2, but does not establish an increase in land-ecosystem carbon uptake over recent decades. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [62] sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.1.2 (pp. 20–21) reports that the global terrestrial CO₂ sink increased from the 1960s to 2008–2017, and Section 2.6.1 (p. 16) identifies fertilization by rising atmospheric CO₂ as a possible contributor. The paper does not report an increase in leaf-area index across many regions; its discussion of leaf-area index concerns model evaluation (Sections 2.6.2 and 3.1.3, pp. 17, 22). (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Climate change-related forest decline is observed in many regions, e.g., in the US Northwest and British Columbia, in which drought and increasing fire frequency interact with additional stressors such as insect infestation.

“Climate change-related forest decline is observed in many regions, e.g., in the US Northwest and British Columbia, in which drought and increasing fire frequency interact with additional stressors such as insect infestation (79).”

• cites [79] sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Discussion and conclusion report climate-related increases in fire, drought and insect disturbances across many forests. Pathways of climate influence says drought can facilitate both insects and fire, but the paper does not establish the claimed combination of observed forest decline and interacting stressors specifically in the US Northwest and British Columbia; British Columbia appears in reference titles, not in that finding. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Higher temperature increases result in higher projected numbers of people exposed to, and vulnerable to, water scarcity and droughts.

“Higher temperature increases result in higher projected numbers of people exposed to, and vulnerable to, water scarcity and droughts (70,71).”

• cites [70] sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.3 reports that higher warming increases the projected numbers of people exposed to and vulnerable to multi-sector risks. Section 3.1 identifies water stress and drought intensity among the water-sector risks, but the cited passages do not establish that the projected numbers exposed to each of those specific hazards increase with temperature. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [71] Hurlbert M, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Under SSP2, by 2050 approximately 1,152 million people in dryland areas alone will be exposed to higher drought intensity and water stress at 2°C warming.

“Projections show that under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) SSP2 (a “middle of the road” scenario), by 2050 approximately 1,152 million people in dryland areas alone will be exposed to higher drought intensity and water stress at 2°C warming, whereas this number would be reduced to 974 million people under SSP1 (“sustainable” scenario) and increased to 1,267 million people in an SSP3 (“frag”

• cites [70] sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 describes projections for SSP2 in 2050 at 2°C warming, and Section 3.1 discusses drought intensity and water stress as separate indicators. The passages do not report that 1,152 million people in drylands are exposed to both; searches for that figure and dryland-specific exposure found no such estimate. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [71] Hurlbert M, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and severity of droughts in many areas of the world.

“Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and severity of droughts in many areas of the world (67,68).”

• cites [67] Jia G, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [68] sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction reports observed drought trends since 1950, including increases in some regions and decreases in others. A search for future drought projections found no passage in our copy stating that climate change is projected to increase drought frequency and severity across many areas of the world. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Indirect climate change-related drivers, such as large-scale mitigation efforts on land, have raised concerns with respect to increasing degradation.

“Moreover, indirect climate change-related drivers, such as large-scale mitigation efforts on land, have also raised concerns with respect to increasing degradation (1, 63).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [63] sourceSupported

Over an 80-year perspective, a recent study estimated for different forms of BECCS and a range of annual bioenergy production potentials a land area requirement between 22 and 46 Mkm2, with the upper end similar in magnitude to the entire remaining global forest area.

“Over an 80-year perspective, a recent study (92) estimated for different forms of BECCS and a range of annual bioenergy production potentials a land area requirement between 22 and 46 Mkm 2 , with the upper end similar in magnitude to the entire remaining global forest area.”

• cites [92] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Mitigating climate change by utilizing vast land areas globally for the production of bioenergy or reforestation and afforestation is unsustainable.

“Mitigating climate change by utilizing vast land areas globally for the production of bioenergy (Section 3.3) or reforestation and afforestation (Section 4.2), which is at present still integral to many climate change scenarios, is unsustainable (1, 63, 96; also see the IPCC Annex-I Glossary's definition of reforestation and afforestation: https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/glossary/).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [63] sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (Co-delivery across the land challenges; page unavailable) identifies potential adverse effects when bioenergy, afforestation, and reforestation are deployed at very large scales. But it says those effects depend on scale and context and may be ameliorated through sustainable landscape management; the Conclusions likewise describe possible harms rather than declaring these approaches categorically unsustainable. The claim overstates that qualified finding, particularly for reforestation. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [96] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says large bioenergy deployment can conflict with biodiversity and food production, and §4.3, “Side-effects,” says large-scale BECCS and afforestation pose risks for other land uses. But §4.3 also says outcomes depend on implementation and scale, with land governance and marginal-land cultivation able to reduce risks; it does not conclude that such mitigation is categorically unsustainable. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Expansion of purpose-grown energy crops such as canola, soy, miscanthus, or oil palm causes loss of carbon stocks in biomass and soil, loss of soil fertility, and loss of biodiversity if it leads, directly or indirectly, to the conversion of grassland or natural forest to cropland or plantations and/or to further environmentally detrimental intensification of cropland management.

Proven and cost-effective methods exist that can be implemented now to increase the soil carbon content of agricultural soils without compromising productivity and food security.

“Proven and cost-effective methods exist that can be implemented now to increase the soil carbon content of agricultural soils without compromising productivity and food security (40).”

• cites [40] sourcePartly supported

  The Status of soil carbon as a climate solution section (page unavailable) describes soil-carbon practices as generally beneficial and readily deployable without additional land, while Soil contribution to Natural Climate Solution Pathways (page unavailable) identifies substantial cost-effective potential and possible productivity benefits. The paper does not establish that the methods can be implemented without compromising productivity or food security in all cases; it treats food security as a reason to exclude croplands from its reforestation pathway. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

For strong climate change mitigation scenarios, the required expansion of land area for bioenergy crops was found to have similarly negative impacts on terrestrial biodiversity as had unmitigated climate change due to the reduction in species' ranges and pressure on protected areas.

“For strong climate change mitigation scenarios, the required expansion of land area for bioenergy crops was found to have similarly negative impacts on terrestrial biodiversity as had unmitigated climate change (95) due to the reduction in species' ranges and pressure on protected areas.”

• cites [95] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Empirical evidence and model studies indicate a steeper increase in precipitation intensity than the Clausius-Clapeyron rate of 6-7% per degree K, particularly in dry regions.

“Theoretically, the intensification is assumed to be at least linearly linked to warming at a rate of 6-7% per degree K (the Clausius-Clapeyron response), but empirical evidence and model studies indicate a steeper increase in precipitation intensity, particularly in dry regions (82,83).”

• cites [82] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [83] sourceCould not verify

  The indexed passages labeled Abstract contain bibliographic information rather than the paper’s substantive text. Searches for precipitation intensity, the Clausius–Clapeyron rate, and dry regions found no passage addressing the claim, so our copy cannot verify it. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Restoration and management of restored ecosystems will need to be dynamically adopted in response to ongoing and unavoidable changes.

“There is also increasing recognition that restoration and management of restored ecosystems will need to be dynamically adopted in response to ongoing and unavoidable changes (101-103).”

• cites [101] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [102] sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.2 describes restoration and management of ecosystems as activities that help people adapt to climate change. Section 3.5 recommends monitoring outcomes over time, but does not say that management of restored ecosystems must be dynamically adjusted in response to ongoing and unavoidable changes. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [103] sourcePartly supported

  Section 4, “Effectiveness of nature-based solutions under climate change” (page unavailable), says climate change can shift ecosystems to new states and that active management can reduce exposure to its impacts. It does not specifically say that restoration and the management of restored ecosystems must be dynamically adjusted as conditions change. (LLM, conf=0.80)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Whether increased fire risk translates into larger areas burnt or more intense fires depends greatly on location and on active (suppression, extinction) and passive (landscape fragmentation, fuel reduction) management.

“Whether this will translate into larger areas burnt or more intense fires depends greatly on location and on active (suppression, extinction) and passive (landscape fragmentation, fuel reduction) management (81).”

• cites [81] sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports regional differences in burned area and describes how reduced fuel continuity can suppress fire spread. The Conclusions say that fire policies beyond suppression could avoid fuel buildup and counteract climate-change effects. The paper does not establish the claim about more intense fires or specifically assess extinction and landscape fragmentation as management measures. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Positive changes in areas totaling globally greater than 10 Mkm2 have been achieved with these practices.

“As a co-benefit, these practices also enhance ecosystem carbon sinks and food security as well as deliver multiple other co-benefits (63), with positive changes in areas totaling globally greater than 10 Mkm 2 (63).”

• cites [63] sourcePartly supported

  Table 11 in the Results section estimates that several practices have the potential to benefit areas exceeding 10 Mkm². The paper presents these as potential impacts, not positive changes already achieved across that area globally. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Agroforestry reduces risks by having at least partial production if one crop fails.

“Agroforestry not only reduces risks (having at least partial production if one crop fails) but also delivers cash crops such as fruits and nuts; however, potentially higher costs of harvest, storage, and transport need to be considered (111).”

• cites [111] sourceSupported

Values of biodiversity and vegetation structure after forest restoration remained below those found in old-growth forests.

“A global meta-analysis found that forest restoration can increase biodiversity (mammals, birds, herpetofauna, invertebrates, and plants) by 15-84% and vegetation structure (biomass, cover, stem density, and height or amount of leaf litter) by 36-77% above degraded ecosystems-although values remained below those found in old-growth forests (119).”

• cites [119] sourcePartly supported

  The Results section reports that biodiversity and vegetation-structure values in restored systems were lower than in reference systems. The comparison does not establish the result specifically for old-growth forests: the paper's reference systems also included less-disturbed forests. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Agroforestry delivers cash crops such as fruits and nuts.

“Agroforestry not only reduces risks (having at least partial production if one crop fails) but also delivers cash crops such as fruits and nuts; however, potentially higher costs of harvest, storage, and transport need to be considered (111).”

• cites [111] sourceSupported

Forests planted in savannahs or other ecosystems with low tree cover will critically damage these often highly species-diverse and carbon-rich ecosystems.

“Forests planted in savannahs or other ecosystems with low tree cover will critically damage these often highly species-diverse and carbon-rich ecosystems (113, 114).”

• cites [113] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [114] sourcePartly supported

  The Results report substantial losses of savanna plant and ant species where forest encroached, and the Discussion extends the biodiversity concern to other species-rich savannas and grasslands (page numbers unavailable). But the study examined forest encroachment following fire suppression, not planted forests, and it does not characterize the affected low-tree-cover ecosystems as carbon-rich; its Results report higher carbon stocks in forest than in open savanna. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Agroforestry may have higher costs of harvest, storage, and transport.

“Agroforestry not only reduces risks (having at least partial production if one crop fails) but also delivers cash crops such as fruits and nuts; however, potentially higher costs of harvest, storage, and transport need to be considered (111).”

• cites [111] sourcePartly supported

  Section 5, “Challenges to Agroforestry Adoption” (page unavailable), says harvesting fruits and nuts can be logistically challenging and that larger plantings may need mechanization to be economically competitive. This supports considering harvest-related costs, but the paper does not state that storage or transport costs may be higher. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

A global meta-analysis found that forest restoration can increase vegetation structure (biomass, cover, stem density, and height or amount of leaf litter) by 36-77% above degraded ecosystems.

“A global meta-analysis found that forest restoration can increase biodiversity (mammals, birds, herpetofauna, invertebrates, and plants) by 15-84% and vegetation structure (biomass, cover, stem density, and height or amount of leaf litter) by 36-77% above degraded ecosystems-although values remained below those found in old-growth forests (119).”

• cites [119] sourceSupported

A global meta-analysis found that forest restoration can increase biodiversity (mammals, birds, herpetofauna, invertebrates, and plants) by 15-84% above degraded ecosystems.

“A global meta-analysis found that forest restoration can increase biodiversity (mammals, birds, herpetofauna, invertebrates, and plants) by 15-84% and vegetation structure (biomass, cover, stem density, and height or amount of leaf litter) by 36-77% above degraded ecosystems-although values remained below those found in old-growth forests (119).”

• cites [119] sourceSupported

Agroforestry is beneficial to conservation and enhancement of biodiversity.

“Given that trees, shrubs, or hedges provide very different habitat to agricultural crops or pure pasture, agroforestry is also beneficial to conservation and enhancement of biodiversity-which in turn can be beneficial to production by enhancing pollinator presence or biological pest control (111).”

• cites [111] sourceSupported

On heavily contaminated or saline soils, energy crops such as perennial grasses and short-rotation woody species including poplar and mallee can be strategically planted to improve soil conditions and contribute to phytoremediation.

“In addition, on heavily contaminated or saline soils, energy crops such as perennial grasses and short-rotation woody species including poplar and mallee can be strategically planted to improve soil conditions and contribute to phytoremediation (107, 108).”

• cites [107] sourcePartly supported

  The temperate short-rotation coppice case study describes planting mallee energy crops where salinity is evident and identifies dryland salinity mediation as an environmental objective. The tropical fast-growing legume tree case study also describes revegetating mine wastes and tailings. Our copy does not establish that poplar or perennial grasses are planted on heavily contaminated or saline soils for phytoremediation. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [108] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Relying on forests for long-term carbon sequestration is a risk, particularly for monocultures with high vulnerability to storms, fire, or pest outbreaks.

“Furthermore, relying on forests for long-term carbon sequestration is a risk, particularly for monocultures with high vulnerability to storms, fire, or pest outbreaks (12,116).”

• cites [12] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [116] sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Carbon sinks decline in all forests as they mature.

Agroforestry can be beneficial to production by enhancing pollinator presence or biological pest control.

“Given that trees, shrubs, or hedges provide very different habitat to agricultural crops or pure pasture, agroforestry is also beneficial to conservation and enhancement of biodiversity-which in turn can be beneficial to production by enhancing pollinator presence or biological pest control (111).”

• cites [111] sourceSupported

A suite of case studies conducted in various settings across the world showed that each dollar invested into land restoration activities could yield between US$3 and $6 of societal economic returns, through both provisioning and nonprovisioning ecosystem services, over a 30-year period.

“A suite of case studies conducted in various settings across the world (124) showed that each dollar invested into land restoration activities could yield between US$3 and $6 of societal economic returns, through both provisioning and nonprovisioning ecosystem services, over a 30-year period (124).”

• cites [124] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

When combined with a strong restoration focus (regrowth of natural vegetation and limited management), large co-benefits exist from both an economic and nature conservation perspective.

“As with the beneficial aspect of different crop production systems, when combined with a strong restoration focus (i.e., regrowth of natural vegetation and limited management), large co-benefits exist from both an economic and nature conservation perspective (98, 116).”

• cites [98] sourceSupported
• cites [116] sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions (page unavailable) describe different co-benefits from forest recovery, and the Spontaneously regenerating forests section reports biodiversity gains and some useful forest products. But the Conclusions also say naturally regenerating forests tend to provide fewer economically valuable services. The paper therefore does not support the claim that a restoration focus yields large co-benefits from both economic and nature-conservation perspectives. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Globally, the estimated forest carbon sink for 2001-2010 was approximately 40% in intact old-growth forests and 60% in regrowing forests.

“Globally, the estimated forest carbon sink for 2001-2010 was approximately 40% in intact old-growth forests and 60% in regrowing forests (18).”

• cites [18] sourceSupported

Yields in agroforestry areas tend to be higher than yields obtained if crops and woody perennials were grown separately.

“Yields in agroforestry areas also tend to be higher when compared to the yields obtained if crops and woody perennials were grown separately (111).”

• cites [111] sourceSupported

Land degradation neutrality, target 15.3 of the SDGs, provides an incentive and framework that encourages strategic actions to restore and rehabilitate degraded land, within the context of integrated landscape planning and management, aimed at delivering multiple environmental and development objectives.

“Land degradation neutrality, 1 target 15.3 of the SDGs, provides an incentive and framework that encourages strategic actions to restore and rehabilitate degraded land, within the context of integrated landscape planning and management, aimed at delivering multiple environmental and development objectives (136).”

• cites [136] sourceSupported

Governance of ecosystems can be a hard limit to adaptation or restoration, unless radical changes can be achieved.

“Governance of ecosystems can be a hard limit to adaptation or restoration, unless radical changes can be achieved (142, 143).”

• cites [142] sourcePartly supported

  The Small inland communities section describes persistent governance failures as possible limits to adaptation for downstream ecosystems, and the Conclusions say radical changes in governance may push back adaptation limits. But the paper calls governance-related limits “soft,” reserving “hard” limits for cases where species or ecosystems cannot adjust to climate change. It does not establish the claim about restoration. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [143] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Commitments under the Bonn Challenge and other voluntary restoration targets in 2019 resulted in the aim of restoring a total of 230 million hectares of forest.

“Commitments under the Bonn Challenge and other voluntary restoration targets in 2019 resulted in the aim of restoring a total of 230 million hectares of forest (137).”

• cites [137] sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 (Source data; page unavailable) says the authors compiled Bonn Challenge pledges and other voluntary national restoration targets, supporting that part of the claim. Neither that section nor the retrieved passages give a combined target of 230 million hectares for 2019; the specific total is therefore unsupported by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Governance is key in fostering restoration because of its social function in steering collective behavior toward desired outcomes and decision-making by individuals, households, markets, organizations, and government.

“Governance is key in fostering restoration because of its social function in steering collective behavior toward desired outcomes and decision-making by individuals, households, markets, organizations, and government (132).”

• cites [132] sourcePartly supported

  In “Capturing resilience” (page unavailable), the paper says governance arrangements can shift human activities toward adaptive management and that governance systems are needed for sustainability. It does not specifically say governance fosters restoration or describe decision-making across the listed groups—individuals, households, markets, organizations, and government. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Continuous, collaborative problem solving of multiscale decision-making that employs experimentation and conflict resolution has been shown to build capacity for resource self-management.

“Continuous, collaborative problem solving of multiscale decision-making that employs experimentation and conflict resolution has been shown to build capacity for resource self-management (135).”

• cites [135] sourcePartly supported

  The ‘Lessons for Adaptive Comanagement’ section (page unavailable) supports collaborative problem solving, ongoing monitoring, and conflict resolution in marine-resource governance. It does not establish that experimentation and multiscale decision-making build capacity for resource self-management; the sentence presents that outcome as demonstrated when the cited discussion does not. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

For the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, spatial prioritization of restoration efforts could deliver large co-benefits for biodiversity conservation and carbon storage, at drastically lower costs compared to a nonsystematic baseline approach.

“As one example, for the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, Strassburg et al. (98) showed that a spatial prioritization of restoration efforts could deliver large co-benefits for biodiversity conservation and carbon storage, at drastically lower costs compared to a nonsystematic baseline approach.”

• cites Strassburg et al. (98) sourceSupported

Coupled global-scale, socio-ecological models are emerging as tools to account for a full range of human decision-making processes, beyond economic factors alone.

“Coupled global-scale, socio-ecological models are emerging as tools to account for a full range of human decision-making processes, beyond economic factors alone (146).”

• cites [146] sourceCould not verify

  The available passages labeled Abstract contain bibliographic details and keywords, including “Human agency” and “Integrated assessment models,” but no substantive discussion of what the models account for. Searches for coupled socio-ecological models, decision-making processes, and economic factors found no passage that verifies the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Restoration of grasslands, drylands, coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangroves), and wetlands has large scope to contribute to climate change mitigation and biodiversity, if climate change risks to carbon uptake are minimized.

“large scope for the restoration of grasslands, drylands, coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangroves), and wetlands to contribute to climate change mitigation and biodiversity, if the climate change risks to carbon uptake (Section 3) are minimized (63).”

• cites [63] sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Potential of the practices for delivering mitigation; page unavailable) say coastal wetland restoration could provide high levels of mitigation and peatland restoration moderate levels. Materials and Methods (page unavailable) also identifies biodiversity protection as a benefit of peatland restoration. The grassland finding concerns preventing conversion to cropland, not restoration; the cited passages do not establish large mitigation and biodiversity benefits across all the listed ecosystems or the stated condition about minimizing climate risks to carbon uptake. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In a theoretical analysis based on the complete absence of land use and with current climate, land ecosystems were estimated to store approximately twice as much as the current 450 GtC in vegetation.

“In a theoretical analysis based on the complete absence of land use and with current climate, land ecosystems were estimated to store approximately twice as much as the current 450 GtC in vegetation.”

Nearly 50% of the ice-free land area is intensively used by humans.

“Approximately 70 to 75% of the ice-free land area is affected by human use, nearly 50% intensively so (Figure 1).”

Approximately 70 to 75% of the ice-free land area is affected by human use.

“Approximately 70 to 75% of the ice-free land area is affected by human use, nearly 50% intensively so (Figure 1).”

A particular challenge in providing solutions to halt and reverse degradation arises from the majority of the people affected living in poverty in developing countries.

“A particular challenge in providing solutions to halt and reverse degradation arises from the majority of the people affected living in poverty in developing countries (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Land degradation has social, political, cultural, and economic causes.

“Land degradation has social, political, cultural, and economic causes (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Intensive use of land has been the dominant driver of the accelerating loss of terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

“The intensive use of land, with the extraction of wood, agricultural commodities, and water, has until now been the dominant driver of degradation and desertification, as well as the associated accelerating loss of terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (1,2).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [2] IPBES (Intergov. Sci.-Policy Platf. Biodivers. Ecosyst. Serv.), 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Climate change impacts amplify the impacts of forest mismanagement.

“These climate change impacts also amplify the impacts of forest mismanagement (12) (Section 3).”

• cites [12] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Unsustainable forest exploitation is a driver of forest degradation.

“Drivers of forest degradation include unsustainable forest exploitation such as illegal logging; extracting high-value species and leaving behind lower-value, damaged, and diseased trees; failure to regenerate forests after harvest; conversion of natural forests to monoculture plantations; and other forms of degradation that in severe cases can culminate in deforestation”

The impacts of degradation extend beyond the local land surface and societies, affecting marine and freshwater systems, as well as people and ecosystems far away from the location of degradation.

“However, the impacts of degradation extend beyond the local land surface and societies, affecting marine and freshwater systems, as well as people and ecosystems far away from the location of degradation.”

Degradation contributes to climate change chiefly through emissions of greenhouse gases.

“Climate change is expected to exacerbate degradation, in particular through weather extremes (Section 3), and degradation also contributes to climate change, chiefly through emissions of greenhouse gases and by reducing the capacity of ecosystems to absorb atmospheric CO 2 .”

Since 1961, fertilizer inputs increased by 800%.

“Since 1961, crop production increased approximately 3.5-fold and production of animal products 2.5-fold, which was made possible by a massive increase in fertilizer inputs (+800%) and freshwater withdrawals (+100%) (1) (Figure 2).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Climate change is expected to exacerbate degradation, in particular through weather extremes.

“Climate change is expected to exacerbate degradation, in particular through weather extremes (Section 3), and degradation also contributes to climate change, chiefly through emissions of greenhouse gases and by reducing the capacity of ecosystems to absorb atmospheric CO 2 .”

Globally, less than 30% of the world's forests are considered still intact.

“Globally, less than 30% of the world's forests are considered to be still intact (1)”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Degradation contributes to climate change by reducing the capacity of ecosystems to absorb atmospheric CO2.

“Climate change is expected to exacerbate degradation, in particular through weather extremes (Section 3), and degradation also contributes to climate change, chiefly through emissions of greenhouse gases and by reducing the capacity of ecosystems to absorb atmospheric CO 2 .”

Intensive use of land, with extraction of wood, agricultural commodities, and water, has been the dominant driver of degradation and desertification.

“The intensive use of land, with the extraction of wood, agricultural commodities, and water, has until now been the dominant driver of degradation and desertification, as well as the associated accelerating loss of terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (1,2).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [2] IPBES (Intergov. Sci.-Policy Platf. Biodivers. Ecosyst. Serv.), 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Since 1961, freshwater withdrawals increased by 100%.

“Since 1961, crop production increased approximately 3.5-fold and production of animal products 2.5-fold, which was made possible by a massive increase in fertilizer inputs (+800%) and freshwater withdrawals (+100%) (1) (Figure 2).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Since 1961, crop production increased approximately 3.5-fold.

“Since 1961, crop production increased approximately 3.5-fold and production of animal products 2.5-fold, which was made possible by a massive increase in fertilizer inputs (+800%) and freshwater withdrawals (+100%) (1) (Figure 2).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Degradation occurs as a consequence of complex and highly dynamic interactions of natural and socioeconomic drivers.

“Degradation occurs as a consequence of complex and highly dynamic interactions of natural and socioeconomic drivers (3,4).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [4] Mirzabaev A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Degradation is strongly associated with the conversion of natural into managed land and the increase of use intensity in agricultural, freshwater, and forest systems.

“It is strongly associated with the conversion of natural into managed land and the increase of use intensity in agricultural, freshwater, and forest systems.”

In many tropical forest regions, the area of degraded forests could equal or exceed the area of deforestation.

“Still, at least in many tropical forest regions, the area of degraded forests could well equal or even exceed the area of deforestation (15,16);”

• cites [15] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [16] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Since 1961, production of animal products increased 2.5-fold.

“Since 1961, crop production increased approximately 3.5-fold and production of animal products 2.5-fold, which was made possible by a massive increase in fertilizer inputs (+800%) and freshwater withdrawals (+100%) (1) (Figure 2).”

• cites [1] Arneth A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The proportion of soil carbon lost from agricultural soils varies from approximately 20% to more than 60%.

“The proportion of soil carbon lost from agricultural soils varies from approximately 20% to more than 60% (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ambiguous and insecure land tenure regimes combined with widespread poverty and frequent marginalization of pastoralist communities across many grassland areas limit investment in their sustainable use and management, including access to veterinary and rural advisory services, financial and insurance markets, and input and output markets.

“Ambiguous and insecure land tenure regimes combined with widespread poverty and frequent marginalization of pastoralist communities across many grassland areas (32) limit investment in their sustainable use and management, including access to veterinary and rural advisory services, financial and insurance markets, as well as input and output markets.”

• cites [32] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Different management practices, policies, and law enforcement can have large impacts on the long-term maintenance of forest carbon stocks, including below-ground.

“Different management practices, policies, and law enforcement can have large impacts on the long-term maintenance of forest carbon stocks (including below-ground).”

This natural variability makes dryland regions vulnerable to widespread and longer-term degradation as a result of human use.

“This natural variability makes these regions vulnerable to widespread and longer-term degradation as a result of human use.”

Intensively managed grazing land is likely a net greenhouse gas source.

“Intensively managed grazing land is thus likely to be a net greenhouse gas source.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Grasslands are sources of ruminant methane (CH4) emissions and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from excreta or fertilized pastures.

Many sustainable land management practices require up-front investments that take several years to pay back.

“Many sustainable land management (SLM) (3) practices require up-front investments that take several years to pay back (both in pasture-and cropland-related SLM; see Tables 1 and 2).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Less than 5% of global temperate grasslands are protected.

“Less than 5% of global temperate grasslands are protected (27).”

• cites [27] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Grazing systems are particularly threatened by invasive plant species.

“grazing systems are also particularly threatened by invasive plant species (35).”

• cites [35] Shin Y-J, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Traditions and practices are a moderate/high barrier for farmers/foresters.

“Traditions, practices Human Farmer/forester Moderate/high Communication and engagement”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Reliance on imports and trade agreements is a high-importance barrier for governments preventing adoption of restoration/sustainable land management practices.

“Reliance on imports, trade agreements Institutional Government High Include environmental standards in trade agreements”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

One possible cause of accelerated CH4 emissions since 2014 is high global temperatures, which have accelerated emissions from low-latitude wetlands.

“One cause might be the high global temperatures since 2014, which have accelerated emissions of CH 4 from low-latitude wetlands (51), whereas emissions responses from high-latitude wetlands are more uncertain (52).”

• cites [51] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Perverse subsidies are a high-importance barrier for governments preventing adoption of restoration/sustainable land management practices.

“Perverse subsidies Institutional Government High Redirect to act on environmental concerns”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Wetland degradation can result in emissions of both CO2 and CH4.

“Wetland degradation can result in emissions of both CO 2 and CH 4 (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Global averages hide the very large regional and intra-annual variation in river runoff.

“However, global averages hide the very large regional and intra-annual variation in river runoff.”

Lack of access to input and output markets is a moderate barrier for farmers/foresters and government.

“Lack of access to input and output markets Economic Farmer/forester; government Moderate Financial incentives, transportation infrastructure, labeling”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Diverse lobby groups are a high-importance barrier for governments preventing adoption of restoration/sustainable land management practices.

“Diverse lobby groups Institutional Government High Dialog with lobbyists transparent to public”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Freshwater extraction typically takes place in regions where freshwater is much scarcer than the global average.

“Freshwater extraction typically takes place in regions where freshwater is much scarcer than the global average (56).”

• cites [56] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Lack of adequate spatial planning is a moderate/locally contextual barrier for government and farmer/forester.

“Lack of adequate spatial planning Institutional Government; farmer/forester Moderate/locally contextual Appropriate regulations and engagement with stakeholders”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Hidden and transaction costs are a moderate barrier for farmers/foresters.

“Hidden and transaction costs Economic/institutional Farmer/forester Moderate Simplification of regulations”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Lack of political incentives is a high-importance barrier for governments preventing adoption of restoration/sustainable land management practices.

“Lack of political incentives Institutional Government High Targeted political measures, redirection of subsidies”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Costs of adoption/lack of access to credit are a moderate barrier for farmers/foresters.

“Costs of adoption/lack of access to credit Economic Farmer/forester Moderate Investment support”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Lack of infrastructure is a moderate/locally contextual barrier for farmers/foresters.

“Lack of infrastructure Technological/economic Farmer/forester Moderate/locally contextual Investment support”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Actual or perceived effects on performance of restoration/sustainable land management practices are a high-importance barrier for farmers/foresters.

“Actual or perceived effects on performance of restoration/sustainable land management practices Human/social Farmer/forester High Communication and education; rural advisory services”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Actual or perceived lack of financial benefit is a high-importance barrier for farmers/foresters.

“Actual or perceived lack of financial benefit Economic Farmer/forester High Communication and education, financial incentives”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Emissions responses from high-latitude wetlands are more uncertain.

“One cause might be the high global temperatures since 2014, which have accelerated emissions of CH 4 from low-latitude wetlands (51), whereas emissions responses from high-latitude wetlands are more uncertain (52).”

• cites [52] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Uncertain land tenure is a moderate/locally contextual barrier for government and farmer/forester.

“Uncertain land tenure Institutional Government; farmer/forester Moderate/locally contextual Appropriate regulations and engagement with stakeholders”

• cites [141] Wreford A, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

If droughts increase in numbers and intensity, this can disrupt the ability of vegetation to recover, leading to degradation, particularly when coupled with unsustainable land management.

“However, if droughts increase in numbers and intensity, this can disrupt the ability of vegetation to recover (47), leading to degradation, particularly when coupled with unsustainable land management.”

• cites [47] Prince S, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The extreme fires in parts of Australia during 2019-2020, associated with unprecedented drought and heat, were estimated to impact >30% of the habitat area of 21 animal species threatened with extinction.

“The extreme fires in parts of Australia during 2019-2020, which were associated with unprecedented drought and heat, were estimated to impact >30% of the habitat area of 21 animal species threatened with extinction (76).”

• cites [76] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Climate change has until now had relatively minor impacts on degradation.

“Although climate change has until now had relatively minor impacts on degradation, it is expected to become more important for degradation in the future (3, 4), exacerbating the effects of land-use change.”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [4] Mirzabaev A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Occurrence of droughts does not automatically lead to land degradation, as land productivity may recover completely after the end of a drought event.

“Occurrence of droughts does not automatically lead to land degradation, as the land productivity may recover completely after the end of a drought event (4).”

• cites [4] Mirzabaev A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Model-based estimates of NPP indicate that climate change is an important driver of degradation in approximately 35-45% of the world's degraded grasslands.

“Model-based estimates of NPP indicate that climate change is an important driver of degradation in approximately 35-45% of the world's degraded grasslands (36,61).”

• cites [36] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [61] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Attribution of climate change as a driver of degradation is made more difficult by concurrent increases in atmospheric CO2 and large regional variability in observed and projected climate trends.

“Attribution of climate change as a driver of degradation is made more difficult by concurrent increases in atmospheric CO 2 and the large regional variability in observed and projected climate trends.”

Future climate change is expected to accelerate degradation most strongly through weather extremes (heatwaves, drought, floods) and associated episodic events such as wildfire and insect outbreaks, because these extremes override positive impacts from trends in temperature, precipitation, or CO2.

“Future climate change is expected to accelerate degradation most strongly through weather extremes (heatwaves, drought, floods) and associated episodic events such as wildfire and insect outbreaks (12), given that these extremes override the positive impacts that might arise from trends in temperature, precipitation, or CO 2 .”

• cites [12] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In many dryland areas, droughts together with unsustainable land management can amplify degradation, including increasing duststorm activity.

“Moreover, in many dryland areas, droughts together with unsustainable land management can amplify degradation, including increasing duststorm activity.”

The increasing intensity of rainfall expected from climate change will lead to increased erosion and nutrient loss from croplands unless SLM practices are widely implemented.

“The increasing intensity of rainfall expected from climate change will lead to increased erosion and nutrient loss from croplands unless SLM practices are widely implemented (86).”

• cites [86] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It seems unlikely that impacts from changes in fires on remote ecosystems can be prevented.

“Although investment in adopting fire management practices under climate change can reduce wildfire impacts in populated regions, it seems unlikely that impacts from changes in fires on remote ecosystems can be prevented.”

Investment in adopting fire management practices under climate change can reduce wildfire impacts in populated regions.

“Although investment in adopting fire management practices under climate change can reduce wildfire impacts in populated regions, it seems unlikely that impacts from changes in fires on remote ecosystems can be prevented.”

Measuring and monitoring the success of combined mitigation-adaptation approaches is nontrivial.

“Measuring and monitoring the success of combined mitigation-adaptation approaches is nontrivial; multiple and very different indicators need to be used that are cognizant of the agreements made in international conventions as well as capturing local consequences (101).”

• cites [101] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The benefits to biodiversity or the avoided damage to human societies, especially from extreme weather events, will accrue only over a long-term time period.

“Likewise, the benefits to biodiversity or the avoided damage to human societies, especially from extreme weather events (101), will accrue only over a long-term time period.”

• cites [101] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Most scenarios illustrating pathways to meet a 1.5 or 2°C temperature goal show heavy reliance on BECCS.

“Because most scenarios illustrating pathways to meet a 1.5 or 2° temperature goal show heavy reliance on BECCS (91), bioenergy could become an indirect climate change-related cause of degradation.”

• cites [91] IPCC (Intergov. Panel Clim. Change), 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Numerous options exist to create synergies between the management of agriculture and forest vegetation and soils with the objective to reverse degradation.

“Numerous options exist to create synergies between the management of agriculture and forest vegetation and soils with the objective to reverse degradation (Table 1).”

• cites Table 1Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Regenerative agriculture increased from 7.5% to 15% of global croplands between 2008/2009 and 2015/2016.

“Regenerative agriculture increased from 7.5% to 15% of global croplands between 2008/2009 and 2015/2016 (105).”

• cites [105] Montgomery DR., 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Bioenergy could become an indirect climate change-related cause of degradation.

“Because most scenarios illustrating pathways to meet a 1.5 or 2° temperature goal show heavy reliance on BECCS (91), bioenergy could become an indirect climate change-related cause of degradation.”

In a warmer, drier climate, fire risk will increase.

“In a warmer, drier climate, fire risk will increase.”

In South Korea, reforestation led to a 43% simulated increase in downstream water yields across catchments.

“In South Korea, for instance, as a consequence of reforestation, total forest volume increased more than tenfold between 1973 and 2016, with significant co-benefits such as a 43% simulated increase in downstream water yields across catchments and an 87% reduction in soil losses (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Agroforestry enhances soil carbon content significantly compared with more conventional agricultural systems, especially in the upper soil layers (>30 cm), with an overall increase of approximately 25% detected in a meta-analysis of field studies.

“Agroforestry, characterized by growing woody perennials with agricultural crops, animal grazing, or a combination of both, has also been shown to enhance soil carbon content significantly compared with more conventional agricultural systems, especially in the upper soil layers (>30 cm), in which an overall increase of approximately 25% was detected in a meta-analysis of field studies (110).”

• cites [110] De Stefano A, 2018, Agroforestry Syst sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In South Korea, as a consequence of reforestation, total forest volume increased more than tenfold between 1973 and 2016.

“In South Korea, for instance, as a consequence of reforestation, total forest volume increased more than tenfold between 1973 and 2016, with significant co-benefits such as a 43% simulated increase in downstream water yields across catchments and an 87% reduction in soil losses (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Large herbivores influence ecosystem structure and function through physical impacts such as trampling or pushing over trees.

“Large herbivores also influence ecosystem structure and function through physical impacts such as trampling or pushing over trees (122).”

• cites [122] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Inoculating soil animals into degraded soils, or stimulating them through indirect measures such as compost, enhances important soil physical and chemical properties, especially related to restoring land for crop production.

“Inoculating such types of soil animals into degraded soils, or stimulating them through indirect measures (such as compost), has been found to enhance important soil physical and chemical properties, especially related to restoring land for crop production (121).”

• cites [121] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Earthworms and termites are well known for their role in decomposition of litter and soil organic matter and nutrient turnover.

Regenerative agriculture now covers 34% of the cropland in North America.

“It now covers more than 70% of the cropland in the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) region and 34% in North America, but only approximately 5% in Europe (106).”

• cites [106] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Predicting the trophic response (and hence its interaction with functioning) of restoring carnivores (or large mammals) to ecosystems is challenging.

“However, predicting the trophic response (and hence its interaction with functioning) of restoring carnivores (or large mammals) to ecosystems has been shown to be challenging (123), and assumptions about ecosystems simply returning to a historical state seem too simplistic given interactions with climate change and episodic events such as fire.”

• cites [123] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Replacing savannahs or other low-tree-cover ecosystems with forest will severely limit the intended climate change mitigation benefits.

“Hence, replacing these ecosystems with forest will severely limit the intended climate change mitigation benefits.”

Perennial woody or herbaceous energy crops (e.g., switchgrass or Miscanthus) can be grown where topsoil has been lost.

“Likewise, perennial woody or herbaceous energy crops (e.g., grasses such as switchgrass or Miscanthus species) can be grown where topsoil has been lost, as they are able to grow, albeit slowly, on low fertility soils.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Perennial woody or herbaceous energy crops are able to grow, albeit slowly, on low fertility soils.

Tree cover increased in Serengeti National Park following the recovery of the wildebeest population after the eradication of rinderpest.

“Tree cover was observed to increase in the Serengeti National Park following the recovery of the wildebeest population after the eradication of rinderpest (122).”

• cites [122] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

SLM and restoring and rehabilitating degraded lands are high-return actions from not only an environmental but also an economic and social perspective.

“SLM and restoring and rehabilitating degraded lands are high-return actions from not only an environmental but also an economic and social perspective.”

In South Korea, reforestation led to an 87% reduction in soil losses.

“In South Korea, for instance, as a consequence of reforestation, total forest volume increased more than tenfold between 1973 and 2016, with significant co-benefits such as a 43% simulated increase in downstream water yields across catchments and an 87% reduction in soil losses (3).”

• cites [3] Olsson L, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Regenerative agriculture now covers more than 70% of the cropland in the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) region.

“It now covers more than 70% of the cropland in the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) region and 34% in North America, but only approximately 5% in Europe (106).”

• cites [106] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Regenerative agriculture now covers approximately 5% of the cropland in Europe.

“It now covers more than 70% of the cropland in the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) region and 34% in North America, but only approximately 5% in Europe (106).”

• cites [106] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Most of the SLM technologies analyzed became profitable within three to ten years after continued application.

“Giger et al.'s (126) analysis of the costs and benefits of individual SLM technologies showed that most of the SLM technologies analyzed became profitable within three to ten years after continued application.”

• cites [126] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The fact that an important share of restoration benefits is in nonprovisioning ecosystem services that individual land users cannot fully monetize reduces the incentive to invest in land restoration.

“This reduces the incentive to invest in land restoration.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: An important share of the economic benefits of restoration is in the form of nonprovisioning ecosystem services, which benefit society as a whole, but individual land users cannot fully monetize these benefits.

In cases of rapid environmental change, societal or institutional resistance to change has been too large to enact necessary and forward-looking responses.

“In these cases, societal or institutional resistance to change has been too large to enact necessary and forward-looking responses to a rapid environmental change (such as climate change).”

An increasing set of studies indicate that farming practices exist that reverse degradation while still producing sufficient food for a growing human population.

“Overall, an increasing set of studies indicate that farming practices exist that reverse degradation while still producing sufficient food for a growing human population.”

Despite strong economic justification, the adoption of SLM technologies and the initiation of land restoration and rehabilitation activities remains insufficient to address the ongoing land degradation around the world.

“Despite this strong economic justification, the adoption of SLM technologies and the initiation of land restoration and rehabilitation activities remains insufficient to address the ongoing land degradation around the world (4).”

• cites [4] Mirzabaev A, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The European Court of Auditors highlighted that €66 billion spent within the common agricultural policy between 2014 and 2020 did not achieve its goal of stopping agricultural biodiversity loss.

“the European Court of Auditors highlighted that €66 billion spent within the common agricultural policy between 2014 and 2020 did not achieve its goal of stopping agricultural biodiversity loss”

• cites https://www.eca.europa.eu/en/Pages/DocItem.aspx?did=53892Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Given large uncertainties about the future and a general lack of restoration scenarios, static goals and policies that aim to achieve restoration (and sustainable development more generally) are likely to fail.

“Given large uncertainties about the future (and a general lack of restoration scenarios) static goals and policies that aim to achieve restoration (and sustainable development more generally) are likely to fail.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Large uncertainties about the future exist.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: There is a general lack of restoration scenarios.

Large-scale deployment of bioenergy and afforestation/reforestation would have major negative impacts on biodiversity and land degradation, if they were to lead to the conversion of natural vegetation.

“As indicated in Sections 3.3 and 4.2, largescale deployment of bioenergy and afforestation/reforestation would have major negative impacts on biodiversity and land degradation, if they were to lead to the conversion of natural vegetation.”

Sustainable, bottom-up and place-based solutions build on existing governance arrangements.

“Sustainable, bottom-up and place-based solutions build on existing governance arrangements (134).”

• cites [134] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Projected outcomes of agricultural or forest land-use change do not capture whether crops, pastures, or forests are managed sustainably.

“Projected outcomes of agricultural or forest land-use change do not, therefore, capture whether crops, pastures, or forests are managed sustainably.”

Land degradation emits greenhouse gases and aerosols.

“Land degradation exacerbates food insecurity; emits greenhouse gases and aerosols; drives the loss of biodiversity; and undermines wide-ranging ecosystem services, including access to clean drinking water and the regulation of air quality.”

If done poorly, both land-based climate change mitigation measures and restoration measures could backfire as a result of trade-offs between land for climate mitigation versus food or conservation, or between forest biomass-based livelihoods versus global carbon storage.

“If done poorly, both land-based climate change mitigation measures and restoration measures could backfire as a result of trade-offs between land for climate mitigation versus food or conservation, or between forest biomass-based livelihoods versus global carbon storage.”

Land degradation drives the loss of biodiversity.

“Land degradation exacerbates food insecurity; emits greenhouse gases and aerosols; drives the loss of biodiversity; and undermines wide-ranging ecosystem services, including access to clean drinking water and the regulation of air quality.”

Land degradation exacerbates food insecurity.

“Land degradation exacerbates food insecurity; emits greenhouse gases and aerosols; drives the loss of biodiversity; and undermines wide-ranging ecosystem services, including access to clean drinking water and the regulation of air quality.”

Land degradation undermines wide-ranging ecosystem services, including access to clean drinking water and the regulation of air quality.

“Land degradation exacerbates food insecurity; emits greenhouse gases and aerosols; drives the loss of biodiversity; and undermines wide-ranging ecosystem services, including access to clean drinking water and the regulation of air quality.”