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Cited by 22Wildlife Ecology and ConservationAnimal Behavior and Welfare StudiesConservation, Ecology, Wildlife Education

Review of the management of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus EEP: current challenges and future solutions

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Schmidt, H., Kappelhof, J.·2019·International Zoo Yearbook
DOI 10.1111/izy.12233
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Abstract

This article reviews the current situation in the Asian Elephant Elephas maximus European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Ex situ Programme (EEP). In recent years, developments in husbandry and gained knowledge about the reproductive biology of Asian elephants have contributed to increased breeding success and resulted in a mean of 15 births per year in the last 5 years. At the time of writing, the Asian elephant EEP population contains 307 individuals: 90.217 (♂♂.♀♀). Based on the life table for 1998–2018, most demographic parameters show healthy numbers [e.g. lambda (λ) = 1·025], while the population has retained 98·44% of the gene diversity. However, this EEP is also facing multiple challenges, such as the presence of subspecies, transport barriers between some EEP participants and the societal debate about the purpose of zoos. The growing number of male elephants in the EEP population appears to be the most immediate challenge. In the short term, the authors suggest that females could be managed to conceive for the first time at 8 years of age and adhere to an interbirth interval of 7 years. This would be an attempt to decrease the reproductive rate without compromising the future reproductive potential of the population. The authors also prescribe improving facilities for elephants to allow zoos to utilize a fission–fusion housing strategy, making it possible to house the increasing number of males appropriately over the longer term.

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Crossref · 10.1111/izy.12233

Cites

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  • In North America, there are currently two zoos holding bachelor groups; in Europe, there are nine.

    “In North America, there are currently two zoos holding bachelor groups (AZA, 2019, 2021a); in Europe, there are nine”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt & Kappelhof, 2019

    The “Housing males” section (page not specified) reports that 22 male Asian elephants lived in nine bachelor-male groups in the European EEP, using studbook data updated to 1 January 2018. It does not establish that those groups were held by nine separate zoos or that the count remained current when the citing sentence was written. The North American count is attributed to AZA citations, not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)

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  • It is too early to determine if bachelor groups will be feasible over a long period of time.

    “it is too early to determine if it will be feasible over a long period of time”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt & Kappelhof, 2019

    In “MOVING TOWARDS A NEW FORM OF ELEPHANT KEEPING” (article pp. 31–44), the authors say it is too early to judge whether housing multiple subadult and adult bulls together will succeed, and that long-term housing of several adult bulls remains uncertain. The claim broadens that uncertainty to bachelor groups generally, although the paper describes existing groups of two or three subadults. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The social makeup of bachelor groups is subject to change, as males may be moved more often for breeding purposes, potentially breaking social bonds.

    “The social makeup of bachelor groups is subject to change, as males may be moved more often for breeding purposes”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt & Kappelhof, 2019

    The Developments section (page not specified) reports routine transfers of male elephants between institutions to create breeding opportunities. Moving Towards a New Form of Elephant Keeping (page not specified) discusses changing group composition and peer bonds in bachelor groups. The paper does not specifically say that breeding-related moves change bachelor-group membership or break social bonds. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Transforming European elephant exhibits into complex fission-fusion housing systems and creating more capacity for male elephants would require huge investments.

    “Schmidt & Kappelhof (2019) acknowledge that huge investments would be necessary to transform European elephant exhibits into complex fission-fusion housing systems and to create more capacity for male elephants.”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt & Kappelhof, 2019

  • Most female reproductive elephants in the Asian Elephant EEP are held in family groups, an improvement over previous years.

    “most of the female reproductive elephants in the Asian Elephant European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Ex situ Programme (EEP) are being held in family groups, an improvement over previous years”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt & Kappelhof, 2019

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Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 41 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. CITES (2017): Illegal trade in live Asian elephants: a review of current legislative, regulatory, enforcement, and other measures across range States: CoP17, Doc. 57.
  2. Châtelaine, Geneva, Switzerland: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Conference of the Parties. Available at https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/17/Work ingDocs/E-CoP17-57-01-A5.pdf
  3. CLUBB, R. & MASON, G. (2003): A review of the wel- fare of zoo elephants in Europe: a report commis- sioned by the RSPCA. Oxford: University of Oxford.
  4. DORRESTEYN, T. & TERKEL, A. (2000): Forward plan- ning and EEP management for elephants in EAZA institutions. In EEP yearbook 1998/99 including the proceedings of the 16th EAZA conference, Basel, 7-12 September 1999: 480-481.
  5. REES, P. A. (2004): Some preliminary evidence of the social facilitation of mounting behaviour in a juvenile bull Asian elephant. Journal of Applied Animal Wel- fare Science 12: 44-60.

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Authors
Schmidt, H., & Kappelhof, J.
Affiliations
  • Studbook keeper Asian Elephant EEP Royal Rotterdam Zoological & Botanical Gardens Postbus 532 3000 AM Rotterdam The Netherlands
  • Wageningen University & Research (NL)
Corresponding author
Kappelhof, J.
ORCID
Kappelhof, J.
Venue
International Zoo Yearbook
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2019-07
Volume
53
Issue
1
Pages
31-44
ISSN
  • 0074-9664 (ISSN-L)
  • 1748-1090
DOI
10.1111/izy.12233
OpenAlex
W2963067685
Cited by
22
References
41
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2
FWCI
2.22
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
International Zoo Yearbook (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Conservation, Ecology, Wildlife Education
Keywords
Asian elephant, captive breeding, ex situ conservation, reproductive biology, population management, life tables, genetic diversity, sex ratio, birth interval, zoo animal husbandry, subspecies

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