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Cited by 75Animal Behavior and Welfare StudiesWildlife Ecology and ConservationMarine animal studies overview

Fecundity and population viability in female zoo elephants: problems and possible solutions

Open access
Clubb, R, Rowcliffe, M, Lee, P, Mar, KU, Moss, C, Mason, GJ·2009·Animal Welfare
DOI 10.1017/s0962728600000488
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Abstract

Abstract We previously reported that African(Loxodonta africana)and Asian(Elephas maximus)female elephants in European zoos have shorter adult lifespans than protected conspecifics in range countries. This effect was the cause of greatest concern in Asian elephants, and risk factors within this species included being zoo-born, transferred between zoos, and possibly removed early from the mother. Here, we investigate these risk factors further; assess fecundity and sustainability in European zoos; and propose testable hypotheses as to the causes of these animals’ problems. Although imported wild-born Asian elephants live longer than zoo-born conspecifics, being imported when juvenile or adult appears no more protective than being imported in infancy, suggesting that the benefits of being wild- rather than zoo-born are conferred early in life. Zoo-born Asian neonates are significantly heavier than those born to working animals in range countries, with a possible tendency to be fatter. In zoos, African elephants have tended to be removed from their mothers at older ages than young Asians, and were also transferred between zoos significantly less often: factors that could possibly underlie this species’ lower calf losses and improving adult survivorship in Europe. Both species have low fecundity in European zoos compared toin situpopulations, and are not self-sustaining, declining at approximately 10% per annum if reliant on captive-bred females under historically prevailing conditions. Data from other species suggest that stress and/or obesity are parsimonious explanations for the suite of problems seen. We recommend specific screens for testing these hypotheses, and for potentially identifying vulnerable individuals within the extant zoo populations.

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Crossref · 10.1017/s0962728600000488

Cites

85 of 85 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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  • Captive elephants have a reduced median lifespan and a higher mortality rate than free-ranging and semi-captive counterparts.

    “who suffer from a reduced median lifespan as well as a higher mortality rate than their free-ranging and semi-captive counterparts (Clubb et al., 2009”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Clubb et al., 2009

    The Introduction reports elevated mortality in zoo elephants and shorter adult lives for female African and Asian elephants in European zoos than for protected populations in range countries. The 'Fecundity and population growth rates' section also contrasts zoo mortality with lower mortality in the reference populations, which include free-ranging African elephants and captive working Asian elephants. The claim extends these findings to captive elephants generally, and this paper does not state a reduced median lifespan for the zoo elephants. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Captive elephants suffer from poor reproductive success and low survivorship.

    “due to the poor reproductive success and low survivorship of captive elephants, who suffer from a reduced median lifespan as well as a higher mortality rate than their free-ranging and semi-captive counterparts (Clubb et al., 2009”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Clubb et al., 2009

  • For African elephants, average life expectancy in the wild is between 41-56 years, with ~5% of individuals living to be over 65 years of age.

    “For African elephants, average life expectancy in the wild is between 41-56 years, with ~5% of individuals living to be over 65 years of age (Clubb et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2016”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Clubb et al., 2009

    The Abstract says protected African elephants have longer adult lifespans than their zoo counterparts, and the Fecundity and population growth rates section says some Amboseli females give birth into their 60s. Neither passage gives a wild life expectancy of 41–56 years or says that approximately 5% live past 65; searches for those figures found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Cites

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Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Ange K, Crissey SD, Doyle C, Lance K and Hintz H 2001 A survey of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas max- imus) Elephant diets and measured body dimensions compared to their estimated nutrient requirements. Proceedings of the Nutrition Advisory Group Conference 4: 5-14
  2. Buff PR, Dodds AC, Morrison CD, Whitley NC, McFadin EL, Daniel JA, Djiane J and Keisler DH 2002 Leptin in hors- es: Tissue localization and relationship between peripheral con- centrations of leptin and body composition. Journal of Animal Science 80: 2942-2948
  3. Caswell H 2000 Matrix Population Models: Construction, Analysis and Interpretation, 2nd Edition. Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA, USA
  4. Clubb R and Mason G 2002 A Review of the Welfare of Elephants in European Zoos. RSPCA: Horsham, UK

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Authors
Clubb, R., Rowcliffe, M., Lee, P., Mar, K., Moss, C., & Mason, G.
Affiliations
  • Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (GB)
  • University of Stirling (GB)
  • University of Sheffield (GB)
  • University of Guelph (CA)
Corresponding author
Mason, GJ
ORCID
Lee, P
Venue
Animal Welfare
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2009-08
Volume
18
Issue
3
Pages
237-247
ISSN
  • 0962-7286 (ISSN-L)
  • 2054-1538
DOI
10.1017/s0962728600000488
OpenAlex
W1710873905
Cited by
75
References
85
Citations by year
2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 6
FWCI
7.25
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 4901 d)
Locations
  • Animal Welfare (publishedVersion)
  • The Atrium (University of Guelph) (submittedVersion)
  • Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
  • University College London
  • Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Marine animal studies overview
Keywords
zoo elephants, Asian elephant, Loxodonta africana, fecundity, population viability, captive breeding, adult lifespan, calf mortality, adult survivorship, neonatal body weight, stress, obesity, captive animal welfare

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