Facilitating the social behaviour of bull elephants in zoos
Abstract
In the wild, bull elephants socialize with conspecifics of all ages and both sexes, and young bulls develop social bonds with other elephants which will be sustained throughout their lives. Significant progress has been made towards providing an environment that facilitates social behaviour and multi‐generational family structure for female elephants in zoos. However, it is more complex and challenging to build facilities and manage groups of elephants in ways that allow fission–fusion herd dynamics and give the elephants choice over their environment. For bulls, this is further complicated by their potential strength and aggressive behaviour. To advance the development of best‐practice management for zoo elephants and achieve high standards of welfare, it is necessary to improve our understanding of the social and behavioural needs of bull elephants, and implement radical and innovative solutions to their care. In this paper we (1) consider how the social behaviour of bull elephants is addressed in zoos, comparing their social management with their behaviour in the wild, (2) contribute novel preliminary data about how these issues are addressed, and (3) propose some new approaches to the management of bull elephants in zoos for the future.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Space limitations may be particularly problematic for male elephants, who range more widely in the wild than family groups.
“Space limitations may be particularly problematic for male elephants, who range more widely in the wild than do family groups (Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019).”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Male elephants maintain complex social ties with conspecifics of all ages and both genders.
“They nevertheless maintain complex social ties with conspecifics of all ages and both genders”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Using free-ranging elephants as a model for structuring zoo elephant groups promotes social learning and natural social behaviors, reduces abnormal behaviors and stereotypies, and improves health, welfare, and reproduction.
“promoting and facilitating social learning and natural social behaviors, reducing abnormal behaviors and stereotypies, and improving health, welfare, and reproduction”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Some U.S. and European zoos have created all-male bachelor groups in response to evidence for male sociality and the need to provide space for an increasing number of captive males.
“Some U.S. and European zoos have created all-male”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Improvements to elephant social lives require significant resources, including larger, more complex environments that allow for the management of males and females.
“These improvements all require significant resources, including larger, more complex environments that allow for the management of males and females”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Subadult males of similar age and experience level held together in bachelor groups are at risk of developing abnormal behaviors or a limited behavioral repertoire due to the absence of social learning from mature males and family groups, including failure to learn reproductive behaviors.
“Subadult males of similar age and experience level who are held together in bachelor groups are at risk of developing abnormal behaviors or a limited behavioral repertoire due to the absence of social learning from mature males and family groups”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Male elephants pose a particular challenge in captive facilities due to their strength, social needs, aggressiveness, and strong sexual and competitive motivations.
“Male elephants pose a particular challenge in captive facilities due to their strength, social needs, aggressiveness, and strong sexual and competitive motivations”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
In North America and Europe, the majority of males are kept at zoos with females but no other males, restricting social learning from older males and the development of appropriate social and reproductive behaviors.
“the majority of males are kept at zoos with females but no other males, restricting social learning from older males and the development of appropriate social and reproductive behaviors”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
For many zoos some of these improvements are aspirational.
“However, for many zoos some of these improvements are aspirational (e.g., bull groups- Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019;Finch et al., 2020”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Hartley, Wood & Yon, 2019
Cites
Primate Social Relationships: an Integrated Approach
Hinde, R. A. (1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 583 · see citing works
Time: a hidden constraint on the behavioural ecology of baboons
Dunbar, R. (1992) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/bf00167814 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Sukumar, R. (2003) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195107784.001.0001 · Cited by 469 · see citing works
Archie, E. A., Moss, C. J., & Alberts, S. C. (2005) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3361 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Mammalian social learning : comparative and ecological perspectives
Box, H. O., & Gibson, K. R. (1999) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Rutting Behavior in African Elephants: the Phenomenon of Musth
Poole, J. H. (1987) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853986x00171 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants
Poole, J. H. (1989) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90068-7 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and techniques
Conway, W. (1997) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(97)86965-0 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Older bull elephants control young males
Slotow, R., van Dyk, G., Poole, J., Page, B., & Klocke, A. (2000) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35044191 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Elephant memories. Thirteen years in the life of an elephant family
Eltringham, S. K. (1989) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90080-8 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Compromised survivorship in zoo elephants
Clubb, R., Rowcliffe, M., Lee, P., Mar, K. U., Moss, C., & Mason, G. J. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1164298 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Musth in the African elephant, Loxodonta africana
Poole, J. H., & Moss, C. J. (1981) · Nature · doi:10.1038/292830a0 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Age, musth and paternity success in wild male African elephants, Loxodonta africana
Hollister‐Smith, J. A., Poole, J. H., Archie, E. A., Vance, E. A., Georgiadis, N. J., Moss, C. J., & Alberts, S. C. (2007) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.12.008 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Reproductive problems directly attributable to long-term captivity--asymmetric reproductive aging
Hermes, R., Hildebrandt, T. B., & Göritz, F. (2004) · Animal Reproduction Science · doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.05.015 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Oestrous Behaviour and Female Choice in the African Elephant
Moss, C. J. (1983) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853983x00354 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Adolescence in male African elephants, Loxodonta africana, and the importance of sociality
Evans, K. E., & Harris, S. (2008) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.03.019 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Chiyo, P. I., Archie, E. A., Hollister‐Smith, J. A., Lee, P. C., Poole, J. H., Moss, C. J., & Alberts, S. C. (2011) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.02.013 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Issues of choice and control in the behaviour of a pair of captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus)
Ross, S. R. (2006) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2006.04.003 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Fernando, P., & Lande, R. (2000) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s002650000218 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
A Comparison of Social Organization in Asian Elephants and African Savannah Elephants
de Silva, S., & Wittemyer, G. (2012) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-011-9564-1 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Concepts in the care and welfare of captive elephants
VEASEY, J. (2006) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00063.x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
The differences between the sexes
Charlesworth, B. (1995) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/bf02696119 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
On the ecology and behaviour of the Lake Manyara elephants
Douglas‐Hamilton, I. (1973) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00101.x · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Behavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African elephants
Archie, E. A., Hollister‐Smith, J. A., Poole, J. H., Lee, P. C., Moss, C. J., Maldonado, J. E., Fleischer, R. C., & Alberts, S. C. (2007) · Molecular Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03483.x · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Enclosure choice and well-being in giant pandas: is it all about control?
Owen, M. A., Swaisgood, R. R., Czekala, N. M., & Lindburg, D. G. (2005) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20064 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Hildebrandt, T. B., Göritz, F., Hermes, R. E., Reid, C., Dehnhard, M., & Brown, J. L. (2006) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00020.x · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Social and reproductive behaviour in elephants
Vidya, T. N. C., & Sukumar, R. (2005) · NOT FOUND REPOSITORY (Indian Institute of Science Bangalore) · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Causes and correlates of calf mortality in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
Mar, K. U., Lahdenperä, M., & Lummaa, V. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032335 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Slotow, R., & van Dyk, G. (2001) · Koedoe · doi:10.4102/koedoe.v44i1.188 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The psychology of control: Effects of control over supplementary light on welfare of marmosets
Buchanan‐Smith, H. M., & Badihi, I. (2011) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2011.07.002 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
African Elephant Play, Competence and Social Complexity
Lee, P. C., & Moss, C. J. (2014) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.12966/abc.05.05.2014 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Models of Dominance Hierarchy Formation: Effects of Prior Experience and Intrinsic Traits
Beacham, J. L. (2003) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853903771980594 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Goldenberg, S. Z., de Silva, S., Rasmussen, H. B., Douglas-Hamilton, I., & Wittemyer, G. (2014) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.07.002 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Prado-Oviedo, N. A., Bonaparte-Saller, M. K., Malloy, E. J., Meehan, C. L., Mench, J. A., Carlstead, K., & Brown, J. L. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0154750 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Ganswindt, A., Heistermann, M., & Hodges, K. (2005) · Physiological and Biochemical Zoology · doi:10.1086/430237 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Choice to Access Outdoor Areas Affects the Behavior of Great Apes
Bernstein‐Kurtycz, L. M., Wagner, K. E., & Ross, S. R. (2014) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2014.896213 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Variation in nature: its implications for zoo elephant management
Hutchins, M. (2006) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20087 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Hildebrandt, T. B., Hermes, R. E., Saragusty, J., Potier, R., Schwammer, H. M., Balfanz, F., Vielgrader, H. D., Baker, B., Bartels, P., & Göritz, F. (2012) · Theriogenology · doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2012.06.014 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Male Social Dynamics: Independence and Beyond
Lee, P. C., Poole, J. H., Njiraini, N., Sayialel, C. N., & Moss, C. J. (2011) · The Amboseli Elephants · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226542263.003.0017 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Turkalo, A. K., & Fay, J. M. (1995) · Pachyderm · doi:10.69649/pachyderm.v20i1.826 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Meehan, C. L., Hogan, J. N., Bonaparte-Saller, M. K., & Mench, J. A. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146703 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Gadgil, M., & Nair, P. V. (1984) · Proceedings Animal Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf03186282 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Population management of zoo elephants
Wiese, R. J., & Willis, K. B. (2006) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00080.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
The sizes of elephant groups in zoos: implications for elephant welfare
Rees, P. A. (2009) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888700802536699 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Posta, B., Huber, R., & Moore III, D. E. (2013) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2013.26.01.05 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Vanitha, V., Thiyagesan, K., & Baskaran, N. (2011) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2011.527603 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Your Choice” Motivates You in the Brain: The Emergence of Autonomy Neuroscience
Murayama, K., Izuma, K., Aoki, R., & Matsumoto, K. (2016) · Advances in motivation and achievement · doi:10.1108/s0749-742320160000019004 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Social networks in African elephants
Vance, E. A., Archie, E. A., & Moss, C. J. (2009) · Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory · doi:10.1007/s10588-008-9045-z · Cited by 27 · see citing works
An investigation into resting behavior in Asian elephants in UK zoos
Williams, E., Bremner‐Harrison, S., Harvey, N. D., Evison, E., & Yon, L. (2015) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21235 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationWilson, M. L., Perdue, B. M., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Maple, T. L. (2015) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21229 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Schmidt, H., & Kappelhof, J. (2019) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/izy.12233 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Yon, L., Kanchanapangka, S., Chaiyabutr, N., Meepan, S., Stanczyk, F. Z., Dahl, N. J., & Lasley, B. L. (2007) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2007.01.028 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationRees, P. A. (2004) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1207/s15327604jaws0701_3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Elephant importation from range countries: ethical and practical considerations for accredited zoos
Hutchins, M., & Keele, M. (2006) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20102 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Druce, H. C., Pretorius, K., Druce, D., & Slotow, R. (2006) · Koedoe · doi:10.4102/koedoe.v49i2.115 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Survey of reproduction and calf rearing in Asian and African elephants in European zoos
Hartley, M., & Stanley, C. R. (2016) · The Journal of zoo and aquarium research · doi:10.19227/jzar.v4i3.161 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationThe impact of competition on elephant musth strategies: A game–theoretic model
Wyse, J. M., Hardy, I. C. W., Yon, L., & Mesterton‐Gibbons, M. (2017) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.01.025 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationHartley, M. (2016) · The Journal of zoo and aquarium research · doi:10.19227/jzar.v4i3.162 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationStagni, E., Normando, S., & de Mori, B. (2017) · Research in Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.09.014 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sach, F., Fitzpatrick, M., Masters, N., & Field, D. B. (2019) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/izy.12213 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lucas, C., & Stanyon, B. (2017) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/izy.12139 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
On the communication of well-being
Gadgil, M., Hegde, M., Joshi, N. V., & Gadgil, S. (1985) · Proceedings Animal Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf03191862 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Wiese (2000) · doi:10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5
Taylor (1998) · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2361(1998)17:4
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 66 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
LaDue, C. A., Vandercone, R. P. G., Kiso, W. K., & Freeman, E. W. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12091215 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
LaDue, C. A., Vandercone, R. P. G., Kiso, W. K., & Freeman, E. W. (2022) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105639 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Acknowledging the Relevance of Elephant Sensory Perception to Human–Elephant Conflict Mitigation
Ball, R., Jacobson, S. L., Rudolph, M. S., Trapani, M. R., & Plotnik, J. M. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12081018 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Glaeser, S. S., Edwards, K. L., Paris, S., Scarlata, C. D., Lee, B., Wielebnowski, N. C., Finnell, S., Somgird, C., & Brown, J. L. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12101332 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
RUTHERFORD, L., & Murray, L. (2020) · Integrative Zoology · doi:10.1111/1749-4877.12476 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Schreier, A. L., Readyhough, T. S., Moresco, A., Davis, M., & Joseph, S. (2023) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2021.1908141 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Longitudinal improvements in zoo-housed elephant welfare: a case study at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo
Finch, K., Sach, F., Fitzpatrick, M., Masters, N., & Rowden, L. J. (2020) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani10112029 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Toin, P., Brown, J. L., Punyapornwithaya, V., Bansiddhi, P., Somgird, C., & Thitaram, C. (2020) · Animal Reproduction Science · doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2020.106606 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Doyle, C., Rally, H., O’Brien, L., Tennison, M., Marino, L., & Jacobs, B. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.18161 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Impacts of socialization on bull Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) stereotypical behavior
Readyhough, T. S., Joseph, S., Davis, M., Moresco, A., & Schreier, A. L. (2022) · Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens · doi:10.3390/jzbg3010010 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Immunoglobulin A and Physiologic Correlates of Well-Being in Asian Elephants
Moresco, A., Prado, N. A., Davis, M., Schreier, A. L., Readyhough, T. S., Joseph, S., Gray, C., & Brown, J. L. (2022) · Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens · doi:10.3390/jzbg3040050 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Nighttime behavior and the length of social relationships in male Asian elephants
Thevarajah, S. J., Readyhough, T. S., Davis, M., Moresco, A., Joseph, S., & Schreier, A. L. (2023) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2021.1998777 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
LaDue, C. A., Brown, J. L., Davis, M., Kibe, G., & Kiso, W. K. (2024) · Theriogenology Wild · doi:10.1016/j.therwi.2024.100072 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Male elephant management in AZA institutions: Current status and priorities for the future
LaDue, C. A., Davis, M., Emory, R., & Snyder, R. J. (2024) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21835 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Freeman, P. T., Anderson, E. L., Allen, K. B., & O'Connell‐Rodwell, C. E. (2021) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21629 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Readyhough, T. S., Davis, M., Joseph, S., Moresco, A., & Schreier, A. L. (2023) · Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens · doi:10.3390/jzbg4010018 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Editorial: Conservation of Elephants
Fischer, M. T., & Sach, F. (2019) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/izy.12248 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Males Matter: On the Status and Future Direction of Male Elephant Management in EAZA Institutions
LaDue, C. A., & Schiffmann, C. L. (2025) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.70040 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social Behaviour in Zoo Bachelor Groups: A Case Study of Related South American Fur Seals
Emmett, C., Digby, M., Pope, J., & Williams, E. (2021) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani11092682 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Readyhough, T. S., Davis, M., Joseph, S., Birmingham Zoo, B., Moresco, A., Reproductive Health Surveillance Program, M., & Schreier, A. L. (2023) · In&Vertebrates · doi:10.52732/oljz7840 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Behaviour and Welfare Impacts of Releasing Elephants from Overnight Tethers: A Zimbabwean Case Study
Williams, E., Clark, N., Rendle-Worthington, J., & Yon, L. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12151933 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationBull Asian Elephant Welfare Improves through Social Housing
Schreier, A. L., Davis, M., Joseph, S., Moresco, A., & Readyhough, T. S. (2025) · Animal Behaviour and Welfare Cases · doi:10.1079/abwcases.2025.0027
Pérez, A. B. L., Goldenberg, S. Z., Brown, J. L., & Khonmee, J. (2026) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2026.107067
- Authors
- Hartley, M., Wood, A., & Yon, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Chester (GB)
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Hartley, M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- International Zoo Yearbook
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-07
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 62-77
- ISSN
- 0074-9664 (ISSN-L)
- 1748-1090
- OpenAlex
- W2979810777
- Cited by
- 24
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 4.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Zoo Yearbook (publishedVersion)
- ChesterRep (University of Chester) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- social behavior, fission-fusion dynamics, aggression, animal welfare, captive elephants, social bonds
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
