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Gaze behavior and affect at 6 months: predicting clinical outcomes and language development in typically developing infants and infants at risk for autism
Open accessAbstract
This paper presents follow‐up longitudinal data to research that previously suggested the possibility of abnormal gaze behavior marked by decreased eye contact in a subgroup of 6‐month‐old infants at risk for autism (Merin, Young, Ozonoff & Rogers, 2007). Using eye‐tracking data and behavioral data recorded during a live mother–infant interaction involving the still‐face procedure, the predictive utility of gaze behavior and affective behaviors at 6 months was examined using diagnostic outcome data obtained longitudinally over the following 18 months. Results revealed that none of the infants previously identified as showing lower rates of eye contact had any signs of autism at outcome. In contrast, three infants who were diagnosed with autism demonstrated consistent gaze to the eye region and typical affective responses at 6 months. Individual differences in face scanning and affective responsivity during the live interaction were not related to any continuous measures of symptom frequency or symptom severity. In contrast, results of growth curve models for language development revealed significant relationships between face scanning and expressive language. Greater amounts of fixation to the mother's mouth during live interaction predicted higher levels of expressive language at outcome and greater rates of growth. These findings suggest that although gaze behavior at 6 months may not provide early markers for autism as initially conceived, gaze to the mouth in particular may be useful in predicting individual differences in language development.
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“This appears consistent with the surprising finding that attention to faces in 6 month old at-risk infants is not associated with later ASD diagnosis (Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009)”
From Atypical attentional networks and the emergence of autism (2013) · cites this paper as Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009
In the citing paper
“Several previous studies have also used the strategy of contrasting ASD with no ASD outcome collapsed across risk group [11, 67–72].”
In the citing paper
“Typical orienting to faces and eyes is measured in 6-months old Sib-A during live interaction (Ozonoff et al., 2010; Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009), but a decrease in orienting becomes apparent from 12 months (Ozonoff et al., 2010).”
From From early markers to neuro-developmental mechanisms of autism (2014) · cites this paper as Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009
In the citing paper
“Behavioral responses to the ‘still face’ paradigm were measured in studies of high-risk infants, but were found to be typical at 6 months in Sib-A (Rozga et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009).”
From From early markers to neuro-developmental mechanisms of autism (2014) · cites this paper as Young et al., 2009
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Cites
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“Indeed, other recent longitudinal studies examining diagnostic outcome of at-risk infants have not found any measurable differences at 6 months of age between those infants who were later diagnosed with autism and those who were not (e.g., Landa & Garrett-Mayer, 2006; Zwaigenbaum et al., 2005).”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 368
Curtin, S. L., & Vouloumanos, A. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1759-1 · Cited by 50
“However, there was a significant difference in the amount of variance observed across groups (p = .004), suggesting that despite no overall group differences, groups differed in their intragroup variability.”
BackgroundMacari, S. L., Milgramm, A., Reed, J., Shic, F., Powell, K. K., Macris, D. M., & Chawarska, K. (2020) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.12.012 · Cited by 49
Wagner, J., Luyster, R., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Nelson, C. A. (2016) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.12128 · Cited by 48
“Work with both high- and low-risk infants has found relations between early attention to faces and later social and language development (e.g., de Klerk et al., 2014; Wagner, Luyster, Yim, Tager-Flusberg, & Nelson, 2013; Young et al., 2009), so associations were predicted for both groups.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialVenezia, J. H., Fillmore, P., Matchin, W., Isenberg, A. L., Hickok, G. S., & Fridriksson, J. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.11.038 · Cited by 46
“Crucially, infants who lookmore at their talkingmother's mouth at 6months of age score higher on expressive language at 24 months of age (Young et al., 2009), and infants begin to shift their attention from eyes to mouth between 4 and 8months of age (Lewkowicz andHansen-Tift, 2012)when babbling first begins to resembl…”
BackgroundNuske, H. J., Vivanti, G., & Dissanayake, C. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2479-5 · Cited by 53
Costanzo, V., Chericoni, N., Amendola, F. A., Casula, L., Muratori, F., Scattoni, M. L., & Apicella, F. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.06.006 · Cited by 47
“After this work, several esearchers adopted this tool to investigate gaze behaviors during ace to face interactions (Young et al., 2009) or to investigate face rocessing, audiovisual integration or visual attention (Chawarska t al.”
MethodPre-linguistic Vocal Trajectories at 6–18 Months of Age As Early Markers of Autism
Chericoni, N., Wanderley, D. D. B., Costanzo, V., Diniz-Gonçalves, A., Gille, M. L., Parlato-Oliveira, É., Cohen, D., Apicella, F., Calderoni, S., & Muratori, F. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01595 · Cited by 46
“Indeed there are studies that report that eye looking is present but in decline within the first 2–6 months of life (Jones and Klin, 2013), while others report consistent gaze to the eye region and typical affective behavior in 6 month-olds subsequently diagnosed with ASD (Young et al., 2009).”
BackgroundTelford, E. J., Cox, S. R., Fletcher‐Watson, S., Anblagan, D., Sparrow, S. A., Pataky, R., Quigley, A. J., Semple, S. I. K., Bastin, M. E., & Boardman, J. P. (2017) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-017-1455-6 · Cited by 42
“The cognitive measure was selected because it discriminates between typically developing children and those with atypical cognitive trajectories, including those born preterm, and has been validated for use in infancy (Young et al. 2009; Ozonoff et al. 2010; Chawarska et al. 2013; Jones and Klin 2013; Telford et al. 2…”
BackgroundKushnerenko, E. V., Tomalski, P., Ballieux, H., Potton, A., Birtles, D., Frostick, C., & Moore, D. G. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00432 · Cited by 42
Social Smiling and Its Components in High-Risk Infant Siblings Without Later ASD Symptomatology
Nichols, C. M., Ibañez, L. V., Foss‐Feig, J. H., & Stone, W. L. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1944-2 · Cited by 41
“First, lower rates of social smiling were found even in those high-risk siblings who did not show later ASD symptomatology, which: (1) suggests that this early behavior does not represent a specific risk factor for ASD; and (2) provides additional evidence that early behavioral differences between high-risk and low-ri…”
Atypical Head Movement during Face‐to‐Face Interaction in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Zhao, Z., Zhu, Z., Zhang, X., Tang, H., Xing, J., Hu, X., Lu, J., Peng, Q., & Qu, X. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2478 · Cited by 45
Empathizing with sensory and movement differences: moving toward sensitive understanding of autism
Kapp, S. K. (2013) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2013.00038 · Cited by 39
“…tend to look at the mouth, which provides audiovisual synchrony (lip motion with speech sound; Klin et al., 2009) that helps autistics and typically developing infants develop language skills (Norbury et al., 2009; Young et al., 2009; Falck-Ytter et al., 2010; Lewkowicz and Hansen-Tift, 2012).”
BackgroundWagner, J., Luyster, R., Moustapha, H., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Nelson, C. A. (2016) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025416673475 · Cited by 39
“Studies by Young et al. (2009) and Elsabbagh et al. (2014) found that increased attention to mouths relative to eyes (corresponding to a lower calculated EMI) during dynamic stimuli at 6–7 months predicted better expressive language abilities in HRA toddlers, and our present findings are consistent…”
InfluentialFranchini, M., Hamodat, T., Armstrong, V. L., Sacrey, L.-A. R., Brian, J. A., Bryson, S. E., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Zwaigenbaum, L., & Smith, I. M. (2018) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0471-1 · Cited by 47
Developmental Approaches to Understanding and Treating Autism
Charman, T. (2010) · Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica · doi:10.1159/000314032 · Cited by 38
Frontal cortex functioning in the infant broader autism phenotype
Holmboe, K., Elsabbagh, M., Volein, Á., Tucker, L. A., Baron‐Cohen, S., Bolton, P., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2010) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.05.004 · Cited by 40
Powell, G., Wass, S. V., Erichsen, J. T., & Leekam, S. (2016) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361315617880 · Cited by 43
“Instead, infants who later develop ASD are similar to typically developing infants in their orienting to faces (Elsabbagh et al., 2013b; Young et al., 2009) and to social movement (e.g. eyes, mouth or hands movement; Elsabbagh et al., 2013a).”
BackgroundMalesa, E. E., Foss‐Feig, J. H., Yoder, P. J., Warren, Z. E., Walden, T. A., & Stone, W. L. (2012) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361312444628 · Cited by 40
“Similar conclusions were obtained by Young et al. (2009), who found that preferential attention to the mouth versus eye area of the face did not predict diagnostic outcome for Sibs-ASD, but did in fact predict stronger language skills.”
Sex Differences in Social Attention in Infants at Risk for Autism
Kleberg, J. L., Nyström, P., Bölte, S., & Falck‐Ytter, T. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3799-z · Cited by 45
Autism Pathogenesis: The Superior Colliculus
Jure, R. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.01029 · Cited by 38
Warren, Z. E., Foss‐Feig, J. H., Malesa, E. E., Lee, E. B., Taylor, J. L., Newsom, C. R., Crittendon, J. A., & Stone, W. L. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1263-4 · Cited by 35
“to ASD-specific outcomes is often lacking (Rogers 2009; Yirmiya and Charman 2010; Young et al. 2009).”
Sivaratnam, C. S., Newman, L. K., Tonge, B. J., & Rinehart, N. (2015) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-015-0048-7 · Cited by 39
The EASE Team, Nyström, P., Bölte, S., & Falck‐Ytter, T. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3253-7 · Cited by 38
“For example, one study found that looking time at the mother’s mouth in infancy was associated with larger vocabulary in toddlerhood, suggesting that early attention to rich and continous (visual and audiovisual) information available from this part of the face may have boosted the development of language skills (Youn…”
BackgroundBelteki, Z., Lumbreras, R., Fico, K., Haman, E., & Junge, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031469 · Cited by 33
“Reference Ages of Testing (Months) Average Number ofParticipants * Both Expressive and Receptive Measured?”
InfluentialViktorsson, C., Portugal, A. M., Li, D., Rudling, M., Sanchez, M. S., Tammimies, K., Taylor, M. J., Ronald, A., & Falck‐Ytter, T. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13724 · Cited by 35
“The reason for using data from both the eyes and mouth region in the same metric (rather than separate them) is partly due to the use of the EMI in earlier studies (Young et al., 2009).”
ResultPositive emotional engagement and autism risk.
Lambert, B. L., McDonald, N. M., Mattson, W. I., Martin, K. B., Ibañez, L. V., Stone, W. L., & Messinger, D. S. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039182 · Cited by 34
“Previous investigations employing brief face-to-face, still-face, and reunion episodes (1 min each) reporting the results of interval coding or total durations of smiling did not yield group differences (Rozga et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009).”
Occupying Autism: Rhetoric, Involuntarity, and the Meaning of Autistic Lives
Yergeau, M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9984-3_6 · Cited by 32
McDaniel, J., Yoder, P. J., Woynaroski, T. G., & Watson, L. R. (2018) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2018_jslhr-l-17-0101 · Cited by 31
“It also aligns with correlations between attention to the mouth, eye gaze, or referent and language skills (Tenenbaum, Amso, Righi, & Sheinkopf, 2017; Tenenbaum et al., 2015; Young et al., 2009) and faster and more accurate speech processing and/or perception in the presence of visual cues for individuals without ASD…”
BackgroundOperationalizing atypical gaze in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: a cohesion-based approach
Wang, Q., Campbell, D. J., Macari, S. L., Chawarska, K., & Shic, F. (2018) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-018-0211-y · Cited by 30
“Similar variability has been linked to language outcomes in infant siblings of children with ASD [16].”
BackgroundCan infants’ orientation to social stimuli predict later joint attention skills?
Schietecatte, I., Roeyers, H., & Warreyn, P. (2011) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-835x.2011.02039.x · Cited by 30
Brignell, A., Williams, K. J., Prior, M. R., Donath, S. M., Reilly, S., Bavin, E. L., Eadie, P. A., & Morgan, A. T. (2016) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361316644729 · Cited by 32
“…with ASD relative to their peers on language (Landa et al., 2007, 2012; Mitchell et al., 2006; Ozonoff et al., 2010) and social communication (Bryson et al., 2007; Landa et al., 2007, 2012; Ozonoff et al., 2010; Rozga et al., 2011; Veness et al., 2014; Young et al., 2009; Zwaigenbaum et al., 2005).”
BackgroundSocial attention: What is it, how can we measure it, and what can it tell us about autism and ADHD?
Braithwaite, E., Gui, A., & Jones, E. J. H. (2020) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2020.05.007 · Cited by 34
Johnels, J. Å., Gillberg, C., Falck‐Ytter, T., & Miniscalco, C. (2014) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2014_jslhr-l-13-0268 · Cited by 30
Eye Movements During Visual Speech Perception in Deaf and Hearing Children
Worster, E., Pimperton, H., Ralph‐Lewis, A., Monroy, L., Hulme, C., & MacSweeney, M. (2017) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12264 · Cited by 30
Parent–Child Interaction Synchrony for Infants At-Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder
Steiner, A. M., Gengoux, G. W., Smith, A. M., & Chawarska, K. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3624-8 · Cited by 36
“While emerging evidence indicates that attentional abnormalities in the development of HR-SIBS are apparent as early as 6 months of age (Chawarska et al. 2013; Shic et al. 2014; Young et al. 2009), research from both retrospective and prospective studies converges on 12 months as the developmental point at which behav…”
BackgroundAttempting to “Increase Intake from the Input”: Attention and Word Learning in Children with Autism
Tenenbaum, E. J., Amso, D., Righi, G., & Sheinkopf, S. J. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3098-0 · Cited by 34
“Larger vocabulary size in toddlerhood has been observed among typically developing infants and infants at-risk for ASD who demonstrated increased attention to the mouth at 6 months (Young et al. 2009).”
BackgroundThe Cambridge Handbook of Infant Development
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“, 2018) and at 18 months (Young et al., 2009), and to receptive vocabulary at 12 months (Imafuku & Myowa, 2016).”
BackgroundImpact of Bilingualism on Infants’ Ability to Learn From Talking and Nontalking Faces
Fort, M., Ayneto, A., Escrichs, A., & Sebastián‐Gallés, N. (2017) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12273 · Cited by 30
Selecting and Commanding Individual Robots in a Multi-Robot System
Couture-Beil, A., Vaughan, R., & Mori, G. (2010) · Canadian Conference on Computer and Robot Vision · doi:10.1109/crv.2010.28 · Cited by 28
“Those infants who showed gaze following behaviours at a younger age also showed a quicker vocabulary growth rate [13]; slower development of eye contact and gaze awareness however, can be an early indication of autism [106].”
BackgroundHighly proficient L2 speakers still need to attend to a talker’s mouth when processing L2 speech
Birulés, J., Bosch, L., Pons, F., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2020) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2020.1762905 · Cited by 26
“acquisition (Tenenbaum et al., 2015; Tsang et al., 2018; Young et al., 2009) and that failure to attend to a talker’s mouth is associated with language learning dis-”
BackgroundHabayeb, S., Tsang, T., Saulnier, C. A., Klaiman, C., JONES, W. R., Klin, A., & Edwards, L. A. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04730-x · Cited by 29
Face processing and exploration of social signals in Prader-Willi syndrome: a genetic signature
Debladis, J., Valette, M., Strelnikov, K., Mantoulan, C., Thuilleaux, D., Laurier, V., Molinas, C., Barone, P., & Tauber, M. (2019) · Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases · doi:10.1186/s13023-019-1221-3 · Cited by 28
Towards a consensus on developmental regression
Zhang, D., Bedogni, F., Boterberg, S., Camfield, C., CAMFIELD, P. R., Charman, T., Curfs, L., Einspieler, C., Esposito, G., Filippis, B. D., et al. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.014 · Cited by 25
“Before 6 months of age, children later diagnosed with autism did not seem to differ from their typically developing peers in overt social behaviours (Elsabbagh et al., 2014; Landa and Garrett-Mayer, 2006; Ozonoff et al., 2010; Rozga et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009; Zwaigenbaum et al., 2005), giving the impression tha…”
BackgroundSelf-citationSekiyama, K., Hisanaga, S., & Mugitani, R. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.03.023 · Cited by 25
Bilingual adaptations in early development
D’Souza, D., & D’Souza, H. (2021) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2021.06.002 · Cited by 25
Sano, M., Yoshimura, Y., Hirosawa, T., Hasegawa, C., An, K., Tanaka, S., Naitou, N., & Kikuchi, M. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2600 · Cited by 23
“In contrast, Young et al. reported higher dyadic engagement (i.e., longer duration looking at one’s mother’s eyes) was associated with lower verbal intelligence, but its effects on visual reception and fine motor were not significant (Young et al., 2009).”
The Development of Multisensory Attention Skills
Bahrick, L. E., Lickliter, R., & Todd, J. T. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.011 · Cited by 27
Face detection in 2‐ to 6‐month‐old infants is influenced by gaze direction and species
Simpson, E. A., Maylott, S. E., Mitsven, S. G., Zeng, G., & Jakobsen, K. V. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12902 · Cited by 23
“Mutual gazing behavior be‐ tween 2 to 8 months of age is positively associated with children's communication skills and positive social behaviors at 2 years of age (Cohen & Beckwith, 1979; Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009).”
BackgroundInfant looking preferences towards dynamic faces: A systematic review
Bastianello, T., Keren‐Portnoy, T., Majorano, M., & Vihman, M. M. (2022) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2022.101709 · Cited by 23
Keemink, J. R., Keshavarzi-Pour, M. J., & Kelly, D. J. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000736 · Cited by 23
Human infants orient to biological motion rather than audiovisual synchrony
Falck‐Ytter, T., Bakker, M., & von Hofsten, C. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.03.040 · Cited by 23
Social endophenotypes in autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review
Tiede, G., & Walton, K. M. (2020) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579420000577 · Cited by 21
“Past research studying vulnerable infants sometimes notes surprise when results support endophenotype findings or differences in vulnerable infants as a group, rather than in vulnerable infants with an ASD outcome specifically (Gangi et al., 2014; Lambert-Brown et al., 2015; Young et al., 2009).”
ResultContingency detection in a complex world
Northrup, J. B. (2016) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025416668582 · Cited by 25
Shinya, Y., Kawai, M., Niwa, F., Kanakogi, Y., Imafuku, M., & Myowa, M. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-04194-8 · Cited by 22
van Wermeskerken, M., Grimmius, B., & van Gog, T. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12211 · Cited by 21
“…not predictive of later ASD development (Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009); indeed, rather than reduced attention to the eye region, more attention to the mouth region seems predictive of later language development and communicative functioning (Young et al., 2009; see also Klin et al., 2002).”
BackgroundVisual scanning of a talking face in preterm and full-term infants.
Berdasco‐Muñoz, E., Thierry Nazzi, A., & Yeung, H. H. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000737 · Cited by 21
Smith, N. A., Gibilisco, C. R., Meisinger, R. E., & Hankey, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00601 · Cited by 20
“However, contrary to expectations, a follow up study of these same infants found that, while not predictive of autism symptoms, infants who fixated more on their mothers’ mouths at 6 months showed increased expressive language scores and growth over the next 18 months (Young et al., 2009)—a result that aligns with oth…”
ResultChildren With SLI Can Exhibit Reduced Attention to a Talker's Mouth
Pons, F., Sanz‐Torrent, M., Ferinu, L., Birulés, J., & Andreu, L. (2018) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12276 · Cited by 20
Chawarska, K., Lewkowicz, D. J., Feiner, H., Macari, S. L., & Vernetti, A. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13595 · Cited by 20
Unraveling the developmental dynamic of visual exploration of social interactions in autism
Kojovic, N., Cekic, S., Castañón, S. H., Franchini, M., Sperdin, H. F., Sandini, C., Jan, R. K., Zöller, D., Hadid, L. B., Bavelier, D., et al. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.85623 · Cited by 20
Dewaele, N., Demurie, E., Warreyn, P., & Roeyers, H. (2015) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.06.006 · Cited by 20
Gepner, B., Godde, A., Charrier, A., Carvalho, N., & Tardif, C. (2020) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579420000292 · Cited by 22
“Moreover, given the correlation between the verbal level of our participants with ASD and their time spent fixating (measured through PFD and MDF) on the mouth region (a correlation also found in several previous studies, e.g., Chawarska et al., 2012; Elsabbagh et al., 2014; Falck-Ytter et al., 2010; Norbury et al., 2…”
BackgroundAmestoy, A., Guillaud, É., Bouvard, M. P., & Cazalets, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00989 · Cited by 17
“These two features could be therefore considered as indicators of a developmental scanning strategy process, and would in turn be consistent with recent studies proposing that attention to mouth is related to language onset (Hunnius and Geuze, 2004; Young et al., 2009; Nakano et al., 2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRutherford, M. D., Walsh, J. A., & Lee, V. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2396-7 · Cited by 20
“2007), this abnormal gaze pattern did not prove to be predictive of an ASD diagnosis (Young et al. 2009).”
Demystifying infant vocal imitation: The roles of mouth looking and speaker’s gaze
Imafuku, M., Kanakogi, Y., Butler, D. L., & Myowa, M. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12825 · Cited by 20
Response to changing contingencies in infants at high and low risk for autism spectrum disorder
Northrup, J. B., Libertus, K., & Iverson, J. M. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1770 · Cited by 22
Glauser, J., Wilkinson, C. L., Gabard-Durnam, L. J., Choi, B., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Nelson, C. A. (2022) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-021-09413-x · Cited by 21
“, eyes vs mouth) and that early differences in attention to faces is associated with later social communication ability [12, 41, 46].”
BackgroundSantapuram, P., Feldman, J. I., Bowman, S. M., Raj, S. V., Suzman, E., Crowley, S., Kim, S. Y., Keçeli-Kaysılı, B., Bottema‐Beutel, K., Lewkowicz, D. J., et al. (2022) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12310 · Cited by 17
“However, note that some previous studies have utilized other variables, such as an eye–mouth index (i.e., time spent looking at the eyes divided by total time looking at eyes and mouth combined; for example, Elsabbagh et al., 2014; Young et al., 2009), to quantify gaze to eye versus mouth regions of a talker.”
ResultMøller, C. M., Garza‐Villarreal, E. A., Hansen, N. C., Højlund, A., Bærentsen, K. B., Chakravarty, M. M., & Vuust, P. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-83135-x · Cited by 19
Alviar, C., Sahoo, M., Edwards, L. A., JONES, W. R., Klin, A., & Lense, M. D. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13359 · Cited by 18
“First, stud-iestodatehaveprovidedevidenceoftherelationshipbetweeninfants’ attentiontothemouthduring IDspeech andtheirexpressiveandrecep-tive language skills (Imafuku & Myowa, 2016; Tenenbaum et al., 2015; Tsang et al., 2018; Young et al., 2009).”
Infant Perception and Cognition
Colombo, J. A., Brez, C. C., & Curtindale, L. M. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop206003 · Cited by 17
Sensory–movement underpinnings of lifelong neurodivergence: getting a grip on autism
Kapp, S. K. (2025) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2025.1489322 · Cited by 20
Eddy, C. M., & Cook, J. L. (2018) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.05.021 · Cited by 18
Concurrent Relations between Face Scanning and Language: A Cross-Syndrome Infant Study
D’Souza, D., D’Souza, H., Johnson, M. H., & Karmiloff‐Smith, A. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139319 · Cited by 16
“Based on the results of Lewkowicz and Hansen-Tift [35] and others [21, 23, 26], we predicted that the 16-month-old TD controls would focus more on the incongruent than congruent face and that those whose focus was more on the mouth region of the incongruent speaking face would have a larger vocabulary.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLord, J. R., Mashayekhi, F., & Salehi, Z. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579420002102 · Cited by 16
“Up-regulation of MMP-9 has been observed during brain damage (Young et al., 2009), and it has the ability to disrupt the blood–brain barrier (BBB) (Rosenberg & Yang, 2007).”
BackgroundSheinkopf, S. J., Tenenbaum, E. J., Messinger, D. S., Miller-Loncar, C. L., Tronick, E., LaGasse, L. L., Shankaran, S., Bada, H. S., Bauer, C. R., Whitaker, T. M., et al. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12479 · Cited by 16
“These opportunities may arise because the socially engaged infant is more attentive to social information relevant to language learning (Morales et al., 2000b; Young et al., 2009).”
BackgroundChawarska, K., Macari, S. L., Volkmar, F. R., Kim, S. H., & Shic, F. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc05 · Cited by 16
Bochet, A., Franchini, M., Kojovic, N., Glaser, B., & Schaer, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.568997 · Cited by 16
“(14) showed that none of the infants with lower rates of gazing at the eye region at age 6 months had any signs of autism at 18 months (14).”
BackgroundThe feasibility of Gazefinder under 12 months of age infants
Fukushima, S., Takahashi, T., Tsukamoto, K., Matsumura, M., Takigawa, R., Sakai, Y., Maniwa, S., Murphy, L., & Taketani, T. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-89585-7 · Cited by 15
Deutsch, S. I., & Raffaele, C. T. (2018) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.05.009 · Cited by 13
Kapp, S. K., Goldknopf, E. J., Brooks, P. J., Kofner, B., & Hossain, M. (2019) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x18002479 · Cited by 19
Geng, X., Kang, X., & Wong, P. C. M. (2020) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.04.015 · Cited by 15
Gaze Following and Pupil Dilation as Early Diagnostic Markers of Autism in Toddlers
Camero, R., Martínez, V., & Gallego, C. (2021) · Children · doi:10.3390/children8020113 · Cited by 17
“They also fix their attention on the mouth when they do not know the word, or when they hear a foreign word [2], presumably to get support in visual information [4].”
BackgroundAnnual Research Review: Infant development, autism, and ADHD - early pathways to emerging disorders
Johnson, M. H., Gliga, T., Jones, E. J. H., & Charman, T. (2015) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.2015.56.issue-3 · Cited by 15
Increasing audiovisual speech integration in autism through enhanced attention to mouth
Feng, S., Wang, Q., Hu, Y., Lu, H., Li, T., Song, C., Fang, J., Chen, L., & Yi, L. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13348 · Cited by 14
Systems Neuroscience and Rehabilitation
Kansaku, K., & Cohen, L. G. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-54008-3 · Cited by 15
Palomo, R., Ozonoff, S. J., Young, G. S., & Carmona, M. B. (2022) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2695 · Cited by 19
“In addition, basic social competences (Rozga et al., 2011; Wan et al., 2012; Young et al., 2009) and attentional mechanisms (Elsabbagh, Bedford et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationA Device for Continuous Monitoring of True Central Fixation Based on Foveal Birefringence
Gramatikov, B. I., Irsch, K., Müllenbroich, M. C., Frindt, N., Qu, Y., Gutmark, R., Wu, Y., & Guyton, D. L. (2013) · Annals of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10439-013-0818-2 · Cited by 14
Visual Scanning in Very Young Children with Autism and Their Unaffected Parents
Groen, W. B., Rommelse, N. N. J., de Wit, T., Zwiers, M. P., van Meerendonck, D., van der Gaag, R. J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2012) · Autism Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2012/748467 · Cited by 14
Infant Emotion Development and Temperament
Aktar, E., & Pérez‐Edgar, K. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108351959.026 · Cited by 17
Face‐viewing patterns predict audiovisual speech integration in autistic children
Feng, S., Lu, H., Wang, Q., Li, T., Fang, J., Chen, L., & Yi, L. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2598 · Cited by 13
“Moreover, less gaze to the mouth in young children has been found to predict their later lower levels of expressive language (Young et al., 2009).”
BackgroundImafuku, M., & Myowa, M. (2016) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2016.163 · Cited by 13
“Our results confirm this view, and are consistent with previous behavior studies showing that infants who focused on the speaker’s mouth had a larger vocabulary size at 24 months (Tenenbaum et al., 2015; Young et al., 2009).”
ResultIs the child ‘father of the Man’? Evaluating the stability of genetic influences across development
Ronald, A. (2011) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01114.x · Cited by 13
The effect of masks on the visual preference for faces in the first year of life
Galusca, C. I., Clerc, O., Chevallier, M., Bertrand, C., Audeou, F., Pascalis, O., & Fort, M. (2022) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.12518 · Cited by 13
Understanding the Social Nature of Autism: From Clinical Manifestations to Brain Mechanisms
Volkmar, F. R., & van der Wyk, B. (2017) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62995-7_2 · Cited by 12
Learning Spoken Words via the Ears and Eyes: Evidence from 30-Month-Old Children
Mélanie Havy, A., & Zesiger, P. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02122 · Cited by 12
“During the 2nd year of life, children show an increased interest in a broad range of visual stimuli (i.e., objects: Bornstein and Arterberry, 2010; Zamuner et al., 2014; faces: Frank et al., 2014).”
BackgroundBirulés, J., Goupil, L., Josse, J., & Fort, M. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13081167 · Cited by 16
“For instance, Young and colleagues [73] recorded 6-month-olds’ eye gaze in a video of a live mother–infant interaction and revealed that greater mouth-looking predicted higher expressive language at 18 months.”
BackgroundRutherford, M. D. (2013) · Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.4172/2161-0487.1000125 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, recent work that reports the early development of infant siblings showed that early anomalies in development of infant siblings such as anomalous patterns of face scanning did not predict later autistic development [9].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Young, G. S., Merin, N., Rogers, S. J., & Ozonoff, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Young, Gregory S.
- Venue
- Developmental Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-08-11
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 798-814
- ISSN
- 1363-755X (ISSN-L)
- 1467-7687
- PMC
- PMC2732664
- OpenAlex
- W2034621560
- Cited by
- 368
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 9.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Developmental Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH068398)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Keywords
- gaze behavior, eye contact, autism risk, infants, facial scanning, expressive language development, still-face procedure, mother-infant interaction, language outcome prediction
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Affect, Attention, Autistic Disorder, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Communication, Female, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Infant, Language Development, Male, Mother-Child Relations, Neuropsychological Tests, Predictive Value of Tests, Risk Factors, Chi-Square Distribution
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