The DOI matches its Crossref record; 20 of the 20 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect
Abstract
In a 9-year longitudinal investigation, 4 subjects learned and relearned 300 English-foreign language word pairs. Either 13 or 26 relearning sessions were administered at intervals of 14, 28, or 56 days. Retention was tested for 1.2.3. or 5 years after training terminated. The longer intersession intervals slowed down acquisition slightly, but this disadvantage during training was offset by substantially higher retention. Thirteen retraining sessions spaced at 56 days yielded retention comparable to 26 sessions spaced at 14 days. The retention benefit due to additional sessions was independent of the benefit due to spacing, and both variables facilitated retention of words regardless of difficulty level and of the consistency of retrieval during training. The benefits of spaced retrieval practice to long-term maintenance of access to academic knowledge areas are discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Bahrick et al. (1993) reported that subjects required twice as many trials in the second study session in order to achieve criterion, as gap increased from 14 to 56 days.”
From Optimizing distributed practice (2009) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al. (1993)
In the citing paper
“Every study examined here with a retention interval longer than one month (Bahrick, 1979; Bahrick, et al., 1993; Bahrick & Phelps, 1987; Cepeda et al., 2005) demonstrated a benefit from distribution of learning across weeks or months, as opposed to learning across a one-day interval;”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick, et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“These studies confounded number of relearning trials with ISI; that is, there was more relearning at longer ISIs.”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“However, 56 days is actually a relatively short proportion of the extremely long retention intervals used in Bahrick et al.'s study, and it is this ratio that is probably most critical, as will emerge below.”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“The results showed that increasing the inter-study spacing out to 56 days improved performance (Figure 2).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“Another issue in interpreting the Bahrick studies (Bahrick et al., 1993;Bahrick & Phelps, 1987) is the use of a fixed performance criterion.Given the forgetting that takes place during the gap between study sessions, this inevitably means that many more relearning trials will be necessary during most sessions at the longest gap (as compared to the shortest).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
Citations
Cites
Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology
Ebbinghaus, H. (2013) · Annals of Neurosciences · doi:10.5214/ans.0972.7531.200408 · Cited by 2,827
Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x · Cited by 1,582
Memory; a contribution to experimental psychology,
Ebbinghaus, H., Bussenius, C. E., & Ruger, H. A. (n.d.) · University of Michigan Library Repository · Cited by 1,281
Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory
Melton, A. W. (1963) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(63)80063-8 · Cited by 739
The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory
Melton, A. W. (1970) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(70)80107-4 · Cited by 527
Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school.
Bahrick, H. P. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.113.1.1 · Cited by 505
Self-citationComponent-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition
Glenberg, A. M. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197590 · Cited by 444
The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research.
Dempster, F. N. (1988) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.8.627 · Cited by 439
Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall
Madigan, S. A. (1969) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(69)80050-2 · Cited by 239
Retention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years.
Bahrick, H. P., & Phelphs, E. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.2.344 · Cited by 228
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–334 of 334
Scott, S. E. (2008) · The Mathematics Enthusiast
Divjak, D. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316084410.001
More than Frequencies: Towards a Probabilistic View on Language
Divjak, D. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316084410.004
Dehn, M. J. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118269688.refs
(2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316084410.012
Committing Experiences to Memory
Divjak, D. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316084410.005
Hargıs, J. (2013) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4014-6.ch012
A Blended Chinese-as-a-Foreign-Language Short Course
Zhang, S. (2018) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5472-1.ch057
Divjak, D. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316084410.013
Learning: Navigating Frequency, Recency, Context and Contingency
Divjak, D. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316084410.010
Barry, P. J. (2022) · doi:10.3998/mpub.12540095
Razzaq, R., Heffernan, N. T., & Gonsalves, M. S. (2023) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2023.2182724
“Subjects participated in 13 or 26 learning sessions divided into 14, 28 or 56 days (Bahrick et al., 1993).”
James, J. J., & Bixler, R. D. (2023) · International explorations in outdoor and environmental education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29257-6_11
Zubenko, T., & Bielinska, S. (2023) · Сучасні дослідження з іноземної філології · doi:10.32782/2617-3921.2023.23.225-233
(2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394260171.refs
Memory III : Errors of Omission (Forgetting) and Commission (False Memory)
Weisberg, R. W., & Reeves, L. M. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394260171.ch4
حامد, م. ع. ع. (2023) · Maǧallaẗ Kulliyyaẗ Al-Tarbiyyaẗ Bil-Manṣūraẗ · doi:10.21608/maed.2023.341535
Luo, J., & Li, Z. (2023) · International Conference of Educational Innovation through Technology (EITT) · doi:10.1109/eitt61659.2023.00023
“Bahrick [6] and colleagues conducted a longitudinal study on long-term retention of foreign language vocabulary over a period of 9 years.”
BackgroundAllen, R. J., Atkinson, A. L., & Baddeley, A. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/tv485
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.01ch1
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.toc
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.ack
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.prelim
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.app1
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.index
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.refs
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.43.app2
Actionable insights from developer behavior: a practical approach to software defect prediction
Catano, C. A. R., & Itoh, M. (2026) · Automated Software Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10515-026-00642-9
Experience schedules: unpacking experience accumulation and its consequences
Bingham, C. B., Kolev, K. D., Haleblian, J. M., & Heimeriks, K. H. (2025) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115749
Back to Normality? A Bibliometric Analysis of L2 Vocabulary Research 1989–93
Meara, P. M. (2025) · Linguistics Beyond and Within (LingBaW) · doi:10.31743/lingbaw.19184
“Examples of this are Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick and Bahrick (1993), Ellis and Beaton (1993a, 1993b), Service and Craik (1993) and Tinkham (1993).”
Retroactive Transfer Phenomena in Alternating Interfaces
Raissi, R. (2021) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/2bd07f51z1e47z4e76za5cbz5bd6efab8b1c
Nguyen, M., & Nguyen, N. T. T. (2026) · Proceedings of International Academia · doi:10.65956/procia.2026.103
“Research by Bahrick et al. (1993) measured learners ’ retention with vocabulary recall tests and recognition tasks , concluding regular review sessions at spaced intervals significantly increased retention compared to massed learning.”
Cognitive-AI Approaches to Adaptive Scheduling in Braille Memory Retention Using Hybrid SM-2 Models
Leewin, J., Qomariyah, N. N., & Setiawan, F. (2026) · International Conference on Education and Training Technologies (ICETT) · doi:10.1109/icett70124.2026.11665862
“This has been replicated across diverse domains, establishing spaced repetition as one of the most robust findings in cognitive psychology [5]–[8].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E.
- Affiliations
- Ohio Wesleyan University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Ohio Wesieyan University
- Corresponding author
- Bahrick, Harry P.
- ORCID
- Bahrick, Lorraine E.
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1993-09
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 316-321
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2132404624
- Cited by
- 334
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 1.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Florida International University Digital Commons (Florida International University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Keywords
- foreign language vocabulary, spacing effect, retention, relearning, spaced retrieval practice, long-term maintenance, word learning, retrieval consistency, vocabulary difficulty
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
