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Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect
Abstract
In a 9-year longitudinal investigation, 4 subjects learned and relearned 300 English-foreign language word pairs. Either 13 or 26 relearning sessions were administered at intervals of 14, 28, or 56 days. Retention was tested for 1.2.3. or 5 years after training terminated. The longer intersession intervals slowed down acquisition slightly, but this disadvantage during training was offset by substantially higher retention. Thirteen retraining sessions spaced at 56 days yielded retention comparable to 26 sessions spaced at 14 days. The retention benefit due to additional sessions was independent of the benefit due to spacing, and both variables facilitated retention of words regardless of difficulty level and of the consistency of retrieval during training. The benefits of spaced retrieval practice to long-term maintenance of access to academic knowledge areas are discussed.
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“Bahrick et al. (1993) reported that subjects required twice as many trials in the second study session in order to achieve criterion, as gap increased from 14 to 56 days.”
From Optimizing distributed practice (2009) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al. (1993)
In the citing paper
“Every study examined here with a retention interval longer than one month (Bahrick, 1979; Bahrick, et al., 1993; Bahrick & Phelps, 1987; Cepeda et al., 2005) demonstrated a benefit from distribution of learning across weeks or months, as opposed to learning across a one-day interval;”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick, et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“These studies confounded number of relearning trials with ISI; that is, there was more relearning at longer ISIs.”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“However, 56 days is actually a relatively short proportion of the extremely long retention intervals used in Bahrick et al.'s study, and it is this ratio that is probably most critical, as will emerge below.”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“The results showed that increasing the inter-study spacing out to 56 days improved performance (Figure 2).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“Another issue in interpreting the Bahrick studies (Bahrick et al., 1993;Bahrick & Phelps, 1987) is the use of a fixed performance criterion.Given the forgetting that takes place during the gap between study sessions, this inevitably means that many more relearning trials will be necessary during most sessions at the longest gap (as compared to the shortest).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
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“…relearning, which has been shown to promote robust and durable learning in neurotypical populations (Bahrick, 1979; Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993; Bahrick & Hall, 2005; Rawson & Dunlosky, 2011, 2013; Rawson, Dunlosky, & Sciartelli, 2013; Rawson, Vaughn, Walsh, & Dunlosky, 2018;…”
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“The researcher takes the span of curb forgetting as the retention test time (Bahrick et al., 1993).”
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“This assumption is based on the Retention Curve for Recall Vocabulary by Bahrick (1984) or Bahrick et al (1993), respectively, which was included in the framework of a life-span analysis.”
MethodMore Stable Memory Retention of Novel Words Learned from Fast Mapping than from Explicit Encoding
Chen, S., Wang, Y., & Yan, W. (2022) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-022-09921-4 · Cited by 8
“For example, Bahrick et al. (1993) trained 4 participants to learn vocabulary of a foreign language, and assessed the retention of the novel words after 1, 2, and 5 years.”
BackgroundMemory in Educational Settings
Marsh, E. J., & Butler, A. C. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376746.013.0020 · Cited by 8
“For example, Bahrick and colleagues provided evidence that spaced poststudy sessions promote long-term memory for foreign language vocabulary (Bahrick et al., 1993).”
BackgroundThe long-term neglect of long-term memory: Reasons and remedies.
Bahrick, H. P. (2005) · Experimental cognitive psychology and its applications. · doi:10.1037/10895-007 · Cited by 7
Self-citationAntony, J. W., Liu, X. L., Zheng, Y., Ranganath, C., & O’Reilly, R. C. (2026) · doi:10.21428/8e6ba8ef.d9f5dd19 · Cited by 7
Enhancing a Blended Learning Approach to CAD Instruction Using Lean Manufacturing Principles
Yip‐Hoi, D., & Welch, J. (2015) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.23994 · Cited by 7
Less Learning, More Often: The Impact of Spacing Effect in An Adult E-Learning Environment
Pereira, C., Taylor, J., & Jones, M. (2009) · Journal of Adult and Continuing Education · doi:10.1177/147797140901500103 · Cited by 7
Correction: Learning and Long-Term Retention of Large-Scale Artificial Languages
Frank, M. C., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Gibson, E. A. F. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/annotation/fcf19f94-5f2c-4a5f-9a6f-3d880bcdd850 · Cited by 7
Karataş, N. B., Özemir, O., Lovelett, J. T., Demir, B., Erkol, K., Veríssimo, J., Erçetin, G., & Ullman, M. T. (2021) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688211053525 · Cited by 20
“Given that spacing robustly improves retention across a range of tasks and domains, including in verbal learning, it might be expected to lead to similar outcomes in vocabulary learning (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993).”
Good Timing: The Spacing Effect and Grammar Acquisition
Miles, S. W. (2010) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.65.2.201006.131 · Cited by 6
RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE VOCABULARY ACQUISITION: EXAMINING PROCESSING TIME AND MEMORY THRESHOLD
Oberg, A. (2012) · Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.17509/ijal.v2i1.71 · Cited by 6
The Effect of Spaced Repetitions on Korean Elementary Students’ L2 English Vocabulary Learning
Lee, E., & Choe, M.-H. (2014) · Studies in English Education · Cited by 6
Simon, D. A. (2008) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)10006-1 · Cited by 6
The Simultaneous Learning Effect: Why Does Simultaneous Task Learning Improve Retention?
Burns, D. J., & Ladd, M. V. (2006) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/20445350 · Cited by 6
Putnam, A. L., & Roediger, H. L., III (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119170174.epcn106 · Cited by 7
Varela, M. A. (2020) · Cronfa (Swansea University) · doi:10.23889/suthesis.53503 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E.
- Affiliations
- Ohio Wesleyan University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Ohio Wesieyan University
- Corresponding author
- Bahrick, Harry P.
- ORCID
- Bahrick, Lorraine E.
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1993-09
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 316-321
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2132404624
- Cited by
- 334
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 1.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Florida International University Digital Commons (Florida International University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Keywords
- foreign language vocabulary, spacing effect, retention, relearning, spaced retrieval practice, long-term maintenance, word learning, retrieval consistency, vocabulary difficulty
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