The DOI matches its Crossref record; 64 of the 64 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Classroom Learning, Teaching, and Research: A Task‐Based Perspective
Abstract
In an increasing number of second language (L2) classrooms, teachers and researchers are taking on new roles and responsibilities. From these new perspectives, they are developing similar concerns about L2 learning processes, which they typically express in ways that reflect their different backgrounds and goals. To support learning, teaching, and research in the L2 classroom, researchers and teachers have attempted to develop activities that both address their concerns and accommodate their differences on a long‐term basis. This article reflects my participation as a researcher in this context and presents the ways in which the teachers and students with whom I have worked have turned to information gap tasks to serve many of our needs. The first part of the article describes the contributions of information gap tasks as seen from our learning, teaching, and research perspectives. The second part describes the issues and challenges we have faced in integrating and implementing them. Then the third part presents an approach that we have developed for designing information gap tasks both as authentic activities for teaching and learning and as reliable instruments for research. Examples of our tasks are provided, together with excerpts from the discourse of their classroom implementation. These excerpts reveal the effectiveness of the tasks in drawing students' attention to form, function, and meaning in ways that we considered vital to students' L2 learning.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Apart from interlocutor characteristics, there are numerous task features that may impact interaction (e.g.Doughty & Pica 1986;Robinson 2001;Pica 2005;Keck et al. 2006;Pica, Kang & Sauro 2006;Kim 2008;Tavakoli & Foster 2008;Jenks 2009;Kormos & Trebits 2012).”
From Interaction and instructed second language acquisition (2018) · cites this paper as Pica 2005
Citations
Cites
The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition
Long, M. H. (1996) · Handbook of Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1016/b978-012589042-7/50015-3 · Cited by 3,927
Task-based Language Learning and Teaching
Ellis, R. (2003) · Asian Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.65961/ajelt-2003-1-009 · Cited by 3,601
(1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,037
Angell, J., LIGHTBOWN, P. M., & Spada, N. M. (1995) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/329630 · Cited by 2,883
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING
Mackey, A. (2004) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263104293056 · Cited by 2,842
(1998) · Cited by 2,572
Input in Second Language Acquisition
Bottigheimer, R. B., Gass, S. M., & Madden, C. G. (1986) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/327330 · Cited by 2,336
Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom
Siskin, H. J., & Nunan, D. (1990) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/327949 · Cited by 2,297
A Framework for the Implementation of Task-based Instruction
SKEHAN, P. (1996) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/17.1.38 · Cited by 1,547
Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input1
Long, M. H. (1983) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/4.2.126 · Cited by 1,433
Research works printed but not linked: 15
- Boyd‐Kletzander R.(2000).Student responsibility in a whole language classroom.Unpublished doctoral dissertation University of Pennsylvania .
- Byrnes H., 2000, Form and meaning: Multiple perspectives, 125
- Crookes G., 1986, Task classification: A cross‐disciplinary review
- Harley B., 1998, Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition, 156
- Levin L., 1972, Comparative studies in foreign language teaching
- Long M., 1985, Input in second language acquisition, 377
- Long M., 1976, On TESOL '76, 137
- Pica T., 2004, Handbook on second language learning and teaching, 263
- Pica T., 1993, Tasks and language learning, 9
- Plough I., 1993, Tasks and language learning, 35
- Stone O., 1993, The joy luck club
- Swain M., 1985, Input in second language acquisition, 235
- Swain M., 1991, Foreign language acquisition and the classroom, 91
- Swain M., 1998, Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition, 64
- Williams J., 1998, Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition, 177
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching
Norris, J. M. (2006) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.13 · Cited by 617
Interaction and instructed second language acquisition
Loewen, S., & Sato, M. (2018) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444818000125 · Cited by 377
Critical issues in telecollaborative task design
O’Dowd, R., & Waire, P. (2009) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588220902778369 · Cited by 364
Language awareness and language learning
Svalberg, A. M. ‐. (2007) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444807004491 · Cited by 362
Barrot, J. S. (2023) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2021.1936071 · Cited by 248
Collaborative and individual output tasks and their effects on learning English phrasal verbs
Nassaji, H., & Tian, J. (2010) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168810375364 · Cited by 226
Kubanyiova, M. (2008) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00784.x · Cited by 199
Toth, P. D. (2008) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2008.00441.x · Cited by 149
The Cambridge Handbook of Task-Based Language Teaching
Nuzzo, E., & Velásquez, D. C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327 · Cited by 138
Cole, J., & Vanderplank, R. (2016) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2016.07.007 · Cited by 122
How cognitive linguistic motivations influence the learning of phrasal verbs
Condon, N. (2008) · doi:10.1515/9783110199161.2.133 · Cited by 97
The influence of task repetition type on young EFL learners’ attention to form
Hidalgo, M. D. L. Á., & Mayo, M. D. P. G. (2019) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168819865559 · Cited by 96
Keck, C., & Kim, Y. (2014) · John Benjamins Publishing Company eBooks · doi:10.1075/z.190 · Cited by 102
Schissel, J. L., Leung, C., López‐Gopar, M. E., & Davis, J. R. (2018) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2018.1429463 · Cited by 84
Purgina, M. V., Mozgovoy, M., & Blake, J. (2019) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633119833010 · Cited by 92
Bushnell, C. (2007) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amn033 · Cited by 70
Methodology, Epistemology, and Ethics in Instructed SLA Research: An Introduction
Ortega, L. (2005) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00307.x · Cited by 68
Negotiated interaction in the L2 classroom
Eckerth, J. (2009) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444808005442 · Cited by 39
Participation Structure and Incidental Focus on Form in Adult ESL Classrooms
Nassaji, H. (2013) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12020 · Cited by 50
Alwi, N. A. N. M. (2010) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.16971355.v1 · Cited by 48
Form-focused instruction: A case study of Vietnamese teachers’ beliefs and practices
Lê, V. C. (2011) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 47
Dale, L., Oostdam, R., & Verspoor, M. H. (2017) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2017.1383351 · Cited by 42
Matches in Beliefs Between Teachers and Students, and Success in L2 Attainment: The Georgian Example
Polat, N. (2009) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2009.01019.x · Cited by 35
Task‐Based Teaching and Learning
Pica, T. (2008) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470694138.ch37 · Cited by 35
Self-citationThe Cognition Hypothesis, the Triadic Componential Framework and the SSARC Model
Robinson, P. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.013 · Cited by 35
Timpe‐Laughlin, V., Dombi, J., Sydorenko, T., & Sasayama, S. (2023) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688231188310 · Cited by 33
Pica, T. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_90 · Cited by 31
Self-citationFrom Needs Analysis to Task Selection, Design, and Sequencing
Gilabert, R., & Malicka, A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.014 · Cited by 30
Barrot, J. S. (2013) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-013-0119-4 · Cited by 33
Hondo, J. (2011) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2011.598529 · Cited by 28
The challenges of researching language teachers: What research manuals don't tell us
Hobbs, V. J., & Kubanyiova, M. (2008) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168808097162 · Cited by 25
Why Task? Task as a Unit of Analysis for Language Education
Sasayama, S. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.004 · Cited by 24
Task-Based Language Teaching as an Innovation
den Branden, K. V. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.035 · Cited by 24
Bygate, M., Samuda, V., & den Branden, K. V. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.003 · Cited by 27
Banegas, D. L. (2012) · PROFILE Issues in Teachers Professional Development · Cited by 22
The comparative effectiveness of noticing in language learning
Ögeyik, M. C. (2017) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2016-0049 · Cited by 21
Bantis, A. M. (2012) · doi:10.25549/usctheses-m1026 · Cited by 18
Exchanging Missing Information in Tasks: Old and New Interpretations
Jenks, C. J. (2009) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00855.x · Cited by 17
Technology-Mediated Task-Based Language Teaching
González‐Lloret, M., & Ziegler, N. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.019 · Cited by 18
A Classroom View of Negotiation of Meaning With EFL Adult Mexican Pupils
Palma, G. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014535941 · Cited by 21
Task-Based Language Assessment
Norris, J. M., & East, M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.029 · Cited by 15
Behney, J., & Gass, S. M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108870627 · Cited by 21
Roessingh, H. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology · doi:10.21432/t2pp4m · Cited by 17
Task-Based Language Teaching and Expansive Learning Theory
Robertson, M. (2015) · TESL Canada Journal · doi:10.18806/tesl.v31i0.1194 · Cited by 16
The Importance of Whole Language Approach in Teaching English to Intermediate Iranian EFL Learners
Moghadam, J. N., & Adel, S. M. R. (2011) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.1.11.1643-1654 · Cited by 16
The Effect of Input Flooding and Explicit Instruction on Learning Adverb Placement in L3 French
Balcom, P. A., & Bouffard, P. (2015) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 12
Review of research on language teaching, learning and policy published in 2004 and 2005
Johnstone, R. (2006) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444806003892 · Cited by 12
Creating Obstacles to Progressivity: Task Expansion in Second Language Role‐Plays
Nanbu, Z., & Greer, T. (2022) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.3197 · Cited by 11
Multilingual and multicultural task-based learning scenarios: A pilot study from the MAGGIC project
Álvarez, I., & Cavana, M. L. P. (2015) · Language Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1515/cercles-2015-0004 · Cited by 11
Rod Ellis's essential bookshelf: Focus on form
Ellis, R. (2022) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s026144482200012x · Cited by 13
Disciplinary Literacy, English Learners, and STEM Education
Kamberelis, G., Gillis, V., & Leonard, J. (2014) · Action in Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/01626620.2014.936766 · Cited by 10
Exploring Indonesian learners' beliefs about language learning strategies through reflection
Pratolo, B. W. (2017) · Figshare · doi:10.4225/03/58b7763874bf3 · Cited by 11
The Adoption of Task-Based Language Teaching in Diverse Contexts
Newton, J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.036 · Cited by 9
The Psycholinguistics of Task-Based Performance
Skehan, P. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.002 · Cited by 9
Preface The Origins and Growth of Task-Based Language Teaching
Long, M. H., & Ahmadian, M. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.001 · Cited by 9
Developing Listening Fluency in Asian EFL Settings
Rost, M. (2014) · Palgrave Macmillan eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137449405_17 · Cited by 8
Jacobsen, N. D. (2012) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 8
Connecting Teacher Training to Task-Based Language Teaching Implementation
Bryfonski, L. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.027 · Cited by 7
Barrot, J. S. (2020) · The Journal of AsiaTEFL · doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.2.19.616 · Cited by 7
Toth, P. D. (2011) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00645.x · Cited by 8
Child Interaction in Task-Supported EFL/CLIL Contexts
Mayo, M. D. P. G. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.023 · Cited by 6
Review of research on language teaching, learning and policy published in 2007
Johnstone, R. (2009) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444809005758 · Cited by 6
Gleeson, M. (2010) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.16985251 · Cited by 6
Příležitosti k rozvíjení řečových dovedností ve výuce anglického jazyka: videostudie
Šebestová, S. (2014) · Masarykova univerzita eBooks · doi:10.5817/cz.muni.m210-6825-2014 · Cited by 5
A Psycholinguistically Motivated Methodology for Task-Based Language Teaching
Grañena, G., & Yılmaz, Y. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.018 · Cited by 5
Analysis of Negotiation Episodes in Foreign Language Learner Interactions
Baharun, H., Harun, H., & Othman, J. (2018) · GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies · doi:10.17576/gema-2018-1802-14 · Cited by 5
Evaluating Task-Based Language Programs
Norris, J. M., & Davis, J. M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.030 · Cited by 5
Kusmanto, J., & Siregar, S. A. (2020) · Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra · doi:10.17509/bs_jpbsp.v19i1.20754 · Cited by 6
Methodological Approaches to Investigating Task-Based Language Teaching
Révész, A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.034 · Cited by 5
Effects of Negotiated Interaction on Mongolian-nationality EFL Learners’ Spoken Output
Li, X. (2012) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v5n6p119 · Cited by 5
Wang, D., & Kelly, P. (2017) · The English Teacher · Cited by 5
Peng, Y., & Barrot, J. S. (2023) · Porta Linguarum Revista Interuniversitaria de Didáctica de las Lenguas Extranjeras · doi:10.30827/portalin.vi39.24276 · Cited by 4
Serafini, E. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.005 · Cited by 5
Collaborative dialogue during tasks in synchronous computer-mediated communication
Yılmaz, Y. (2008) · Cited by 4
The multi-feature hypothesis: Connectionist guidelines for L2 task design
Moonen, M., de Graaff, R., Westhoff, G. J., & Brekelmans, M. (2014) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168813519881 · Cited by 4
Revisiting Language Learning Through the Self: Discovery Learning in the 21st Century
Dönük, D. (2016) · Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.32959/tojelt.229319 · Cited by 4
Rahimi, S., Ahmadian, M., Amerian, M., & Dowlatabadi, H. R. (2020) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244020919505 · Cited by 4
Long, M. H., Grañena, G., & Yılmaz, Y. (2016) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004323865 · Cited by 4
'Jack of all trades': The ambiguous role of the ESOL teacher in secondary schools
Gleeson, M. (2012) · Teacher Education Advancement Network journal · Cited by 4
Audio glossing during information-gap activities: The effect on learner output
Antes, T. A. (2014) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2014.05.009 · Cited by 4
5. Evaluating and adapting existing materials
(2014) · John Benjamins Publishing Company eBooks · doi:10.1075/z.190.05ch5 · Cited by 3
Exploring the Nuts and Bolts of Task Design
Samuda, V., & Bygate, M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.016 · Cited by 3
Norris, J. (2021) · TASK Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1075/task.21015.nor · Cited by 1
Exploring teacher-student interaction in task and non-task sequences
Zhu, Y., Newton, J., Liu, Y., & Shu, D.-F. (2025) · International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2024-0164 · Cited by 2
Oliver, R., & Sato, M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.024 · Cited by 3
Task-Based Telecollaborative Exchanges between US and Italian Students
Nuzzo, E., & Velásquez, D. C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.015 · Cited by 3
Designing Pedagogic Tasks for Refugees Learning English to Enter Universities in the Netherlands
Gök, S. Ö., & Michel, M. C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.017 · Cited by 3
Borro, I. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.031 · Cited by 3
Pedagogical Foci of Teaching Cantonese as a Second Language
Lee, S.-L. (2020) · International Journal of Curriculum Development and Learning Measurement · doi:10.4018/ijcdlm.2020010101 · Cited by 3
Long, M. H. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.010 · Cited by 4
Bush, M. D. (2010) · CALICO Journal · doi:10.11139/cj.27.3.505-516 · Cited by 3
Teaching the Passive Through Semantically Enhanced Input
Little, A., & Fieldsend, T. (2017) · TESOL Journal · doi:10.1002/tesj.313 · Cited by 3
Task-in-process During Information-gap Activities in Korean Middle School English Classrooms
Park, Y. (2018) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.73.2.201806.59 · Cited by 3
The Notion and Scope of Task-Based Language Teaching
Róg, T. (2025) · Second language learning and teaching · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-86566-4_2 · Cited by 3
Shokuhi, A., & Pishkar, K. (2015) · Journal of applied linguistics and language research · Cited by 2
Khodabandeh, F. (2016) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v9n3p139 · Cited by 2
Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Information-Loaded and Negotiation-Oriented Tasks
Khoii, R., & Ashuri, S. (2016) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature · doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.7p.30 · Cited by 2
A Case Study of a Task-Based Approach for School-Age Learners in China
Gong, Y., & Skehan, P. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.025 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- PICA, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- PICA, TERESA
- Venue
- The Modern Language Journal
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-08-22
- Volume
- 89
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 339-352
- ISSN
- 0026-7902 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-4781
- OpenAlex
- W2136044730
- Cited by
- 179
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 47.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Modern Language Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Second Language Learning and Teaching
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Keywords
- information-gap tasks, second language classroom, task-based language teaching, task design, teacher-researcher collaboration
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review