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Cited by 135Writing and Handwriting EducationReading and Literacy DevelopmentDevelopmental and Educational Neuropsychology

Highlights of Programmatic, Interdisciplinary Research on Writing

Open access
Berninger, Virginia W.·2009·Learning Disabilities Research & Practice
DOI 10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00281.xPMC PMC2717633
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Abstract

An overview of research topics and findings from an interdisciplinary, programmatic line of research on writing over the past 25 years is presented. The cross–sectional assessment studies (grades 1 to 9) showed which measures uniquely explained variance in handwriting, spelling, and composing and thus validated their use in assessment. These and the longitudinal studies (grades 1 to 5 and 3 to 7) contributed to knowledge of the cognitive processes of writing, within a working memory architecture that orchestrates multiple component processes in time to achieve specific writing goals, especially the translation of ideas into words, syntax, and text, and transcription (handwriting and spelling) by pen and by keyboard. Combined brain imaging and behavioral studies of writing have provided converging evidence for brain–behavior relationships for handwriting, spelling, and composing and for the role of temporally coordinated working memory, including an orthographic loop with a graphic–motor envelope for word production. A series of instructional studies for at–risk writers, which was taught to all levels of language to overcome working memory inefficiencies, were organized according to the developmental steppingstones in writing acquisition and show that writing problems can be prevented. Other studies with older, struggling writers validated effective instructional approaches for helping struggling writers become reading–writers who integrate both written language skills in literacy learning.

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  • The high co-occurrence of impaired orthographic loop across diagnostic groups and individuals may be related to this measure assessing automaticity in letter formation and in accessing, retrieving, and producing ordered letter symbols.

    “The high co-occurrence of impaired orthographic loop across diagnostic groups and individuals may be related to this measure assessing automaticity in letter formation and automaticity in accessing, retrieving, and producing ordered letter symbols, both of which have been shown to play an important role in learning to spell and read words and as well as write letters (Berninger, 2009).”

    From Differential Diagnosis of Dysgraphia, Dyslexia, and OWL LD: Behavioral and Neuroimaging Evidence (2015) · cites this paper as Berninger, 2009

    The General Model section describes orthographic impairment across several learning-disability groups, and the Dysgraphia and Validating Predictors sections link the orthographic loop to automatic letter production and learning to spell (page numbers unavailable). The paper does not establish a high co-occurrence of impairment on the particular measure, explain that co-occurrence, or show that the orthographic loop plays a role in reading words. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Handwriting and/or spelling problems may interfere with development of composing skills, but some may also have impaired composing beyond those transcription skills.

    “Handwriting and/or spelling problems may interfere with development of composing skills, but some may also have impaired composing beyond those transcription (handwriting and spelling) skills (Berninger, 2009; Graham, 1990; Graham & Harris, 2009; Scott, 2002, 2009; Troia, 2009).”

    From Computer instruction in handwriting, spelling, and composing for students with specific learning disabilities in grades 4–9 (2015) · cites this paper as Berninger, 2009

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Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Berninger V 2006a A developmental approach to learning disabilities Siegel I Renninger A Handbook of child psychology, Vol IV, child psychology and practice 420 452 New York John Wiley
  2. Berninger V 2007a Process assessment of the learner, second edition. Diagnostic for reading and writing (PAL-II RW) San Antonio, TX Psychological Corp
  3. Berninger V 2008a Defining and differentiating dyslexia, dysgraphia, and language learning disability within a working memory model Silliman E Mody M Language impairment and reading disability-interactions among brain, behavior, and experience 103 134 Guilford Press
  4. Berninger V Holdnack J 2008 Neuroscientific and clinical perspectives on the RTI initiative in learning disabilities diagnosis and intervention: Response to questions begging answers that see the forest and the trees Reynolds C Fletcher-Janzen E Neuroscientific and clinical perspectives on the RTI initiative in learning disabilities diagnosis and intervention 66 81 New York John Wiley
  5. Berninger V Mizokawa D Bragg R 1991 Theory-based diagnosis and remediation of writing disabilities Journal of School Psychology 29 57 79
  6. Berninger V O’Donnell L Holdnack J 2008 Research-supported differential diagnosis of specific learning disabilities and implications for instruction and response to instruction (RTI) Prifitera A Saklofske D Weiss L WISC-IV Clinical assessment and intervention, second edition 69 108 San Diego, CA Academic Press (Elsevier)
  7. Berninger V Richards T Abbott R 2009 The role of the hand in written idea expression. Proceedings for Writing in All Its States, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France Submitted invited manuscript
  8. Bourdin B Fayol M 1994 Is written language production really more difficult than oral language production? International Journal of Psychology 29 591 620
  9. Yates C Berninger V Abbott R 1994 Writing problems in intellectually gifted children Journal for the Education of the Gifted 18 131 155

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Authors
Berninger, V. W.
Affiliations
University of Washington (US)
Corresponding author
Berninger, Virginia W.
ORCID
Berninger, Virginia W.
Venue
Learning Disabilities Research & Practice
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2009-05
Volume
24
Issue
2
Pages
69-80
ISSN
  • 0938-8982 (ISSN-L)
  • 1540-5826
DOI
10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00281.x
PMC
PMC2717633
OpenAlex
W2073556927
Cited by
135
References
76
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 11
FWCI
28.28
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Learning Disabilities Research and Practice (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • Florida State University
  • National Institutes of Health
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025858)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Writing and Handwriting Education
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Keywords
writing acquisition, handwriting, spelling, composition, working memory, brain-behavior relationship, writing instruction, struggling writers, writing assessment

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