Computer instruction in handwriting, spelling, and composing for students with specific learning disabilities in grades 4–9
Open accessAbstract
Effectiveness of iPad computerized writing instruction was evaluated for 4 th to 9 th graders (n=35) with diagnosed specific learning disabilities (SLDs) affecting writing: dysgraphia (impaired handwriting), dyslexia (impaired spelling), and oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax composing). Each of the 18 two-hour lessons had multiple learning activities aimed at improving subword- (handwriting), word- (spelling), and syntax- (sentence composing) level language skills by engaging all four language systems (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) to create a functional writing system. To evaluate treatment effectiveness, normed measures of handwriting, spelling, and composing were used with the exception of one non-normed alphabet writing task. Results showed that the sample as a whole improved significantly from pretest to posttest in three handwriting measures, four spelling measures, and both written and oral syntax construction measures. All but oral syntax was evaluated with pen and paper tasks, showing that the computer writing instruction transferred to better writing with pen and paper. Performance on learning activities during instruction correlated with writing outcomes; and individual students tended to improve in the impaired skill associated with their diagnosis. Thus, although computers are often used in upper elementary school and middle school in the United States (US) for accommodations (alternatives to pen and paper) for students with persisting SLDs affecting writing, this study shows computers can also be used for Tier 3 instruction to improve the writing skills of students in grades 4 to 9 with history of persisting writing disabilities.
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- Finding
The students improved in both written and oral syntax construction, and those syntax effects were of medium size.
“The participating students improved in both written and oral syntax construction.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
Mean mode effects were not statistically significant for handwriting, spelling, or composing lessons.
“Because mean mode effect was not statistically significant for handwriting, spelling, or composing lessons, the average scores for RTI during specific learning activities were summed across combined modes in the correlation analyses that follow.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper characterized the study as proof of concept that computer instruction can provide evidence-based and individualized writing instruction for students with writing-related SLDs.
“The current study provides proof of concept that computer instruction in the upper elementary and middle school grades can be used to provide evidence-based writing instruction for students with SLDs affecting writing in general and also individualized instruction aimed at the instructional needs in writing for those with dysgraphia, dyslexia, or OWL LD.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The study concluded that a common set of computerized writing lessons may be effective for students with dysgraphia, dyslexia, or OWL LD in classrooms.
“it may be possible to use a common set of computerized writing lessons containing learning activities tailored to instructional needs of students with dysgraphia (impaired handwriting), dyslexia (impaired spelling), or OWL LD/SLI (impaired syntax comprehension and composing) to provide effective writing instruction for all students in a classroom with SLDs affecting written language regardless of the specific diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
For TOC Letter Choice, several phonological, orthographic, morpho-syntactic, and semantic learning activities were significantly correlated with the spelling outcome.
“For TOC Letter Choice, phonological, orthographic, morpho/syntactic, and semantic Learning Activities were significantly correlated with the posttest learning outcome”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified
- Finding
The students improved on all four word-specific spelling measures, and those effects were of medium size.
“the participating students improved on all four of the TOC word-specific spelling measures”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The study's group analyses showed significant change on two handwriting measures, four word-specific spelling measures, and two syntax-construction measures, plus one raw-score handwriting measure.
“Significant change was observed from before to after participating in the computer instruction in writing on two normed measures of handwriting, four normed measures of word-specific orthographic spellings, and two normed measures of syntax construction as well as one measure of handwriting based on raw scores.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
After instruction, students changed significantly on alphabet writing in cursive and on both DASH copy tasks, with medium effect sizes except for Copy Best, which was large.
“after instruction the participating students changed significantly in writing the alphabet in cursive letters (number of legible letters in first 15 seconds, an index of automaticity) and on both DASH Copy Tasks—for instructions emphasizing one’s best writing and instructions emphasizing fast writing. All treatment effects for subword written level of language were of medium effect size, except for Copy Best which was of large effect size”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
Performance during instruction correlated with writing outcomes, and individual students tended to improve in the skill associated with their diagnosis.
“Performance on learning activities during instruction correlated with writing outcomes; and individual students tended to improve in the impaired skill associated with their diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The sample as a whole improved significantly on three handwriting measures, four spelling measures, and two measures of syntax construction.
“Results showed that the sample as a whole improved significantly from pretest to posttest in three handwriting measures, four spelling measures, and both written and oral syntax construction measures.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The study reported that dysgraphia students were robust responders to handwriting instruction, dyslexia students showed treatment response for spelling, and OWL LD/SLI students showed treatment response for oral syntax impairments.
“Based on change in scores from pretest to posttest for individual students, those with dysgraphia were robust responders to handwriting instruction, with only one not responding on a handwriting measure. Nearly 60% with dyslexia were treatment responders to spelling instruction. All those with OWL LD/SLI showed treatment response for their underlying oral language syntax impairments.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The study found that iPad computerized writing instruction improved 4th- to 9th-grade students with specific learning disabilities affecting writing from pretest to posttest in handwriting, spelling, and sentence composing.
“Effectiveness of iPad computerized writing instruction was evaluated for 4th to 9th graders (n=35) with diagnosed specific learning disabilities (SLDs) affecting writing: dysgraphia (impaired handwriting), dyslexia (impaired spelling), and oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax composing).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
For CELF4 Sentence Formulation, phonological, morphological, orthographic, and syntactic learning activities were correlated with the oral syntax outcome.
“For the CELF4 Sentence Formulation, phonological, morphological, orthographic, and syntactic Learning Activities were correlated with the learning outcome”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
Most outcomes were measured with pen-and-paper tasks, indicating transfer from computer instruction to noncomputer writing.
“All but oral syntax was evaluated with pen and paper tasks, showing that the computer writing instruction transferred to better writing with pen and paper.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
For handwriting outcomes, more errors and more total time during handwriting learning activities were associated with worse copy-task performance.
“Mean errors (moving finger or stylus) outside the contour of letter while forming the letter on the iPad screen were negatively correlated with both copy sentence tasks that included all the letters in the alphabet: DASH Copy Best, r= −.37, p=.029; and DASH Copy Fast, r= −.469, p=.004.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Method
All participants were randomly assigned to alternating order of writing modes for the lessons.
“All participants were randomly assigned to alternating order of modes of writing as described for the handwriting, spelling, and composing lessons.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Method
The analyses used paired t-tests and Cohen's f2 to estimate treatment effects.
“We report results of paired t-tests, for which two time points yield the same results as repeated measures within-subjects ANOVA. To estimate effect sizes we used Cohen’s f2, the ratio of partial eta2 / (1-partial eta2)”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Murphy, Myors, and Wolach (2009)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Background
The instructional approach targeted subword, word, and text levels close in time so those levels could work together to create functional writing systems.
“Key to those instructional approaches was targeting instruction to each level of language, first at the subword, then word, and finally text levels close in time, so that the subword, word, and text levels can learn to work together to create functional writing systems”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Method
The computerized instruction consisted of 18 two-hour lessons with learning activities aimed at subword, word, and syntax-level skills while engaging listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
“Each of the 18 two-hour lessons had multiple learning activities aimed at improving subword- (handwriting), word- (spelling), and syntax- (sentence composing) level language skills by engaging all four language systems (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) to create a functional writing system.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Method
The study used pretest and posttest normed measures of handwriting, spelling, and composing to evaluate the lessons.
“The following measures were given to assess students’ writing achievement at the subword, word, and sentence levels before and after participating in the 18 computerized writing lessons to evaluate effectiveness of the lessons within a theoretical framework of levels of language.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
The lessons were based on prior instructional studies showing effective human-teacher instruction in handwriting, spelling, and composing for students with diagnosed dysgraphia, dyslexia, or OWL LD.
“the computerized writing lessons used in the current study were based on prior instructional studies that identified effective ways for human teachers to teach handwriting, spelling, and composing to students with diagnosed dysgraphia or dyslexia or OWL LD in the upper elementary or middle school grades”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Berninger, Winn et al., 2008 source
- Method
Computer-scored RTI during learning activities was analyzed for correlations with posttest normed scores to test theory-driven hypotheses about which activities related to treatment outcomes.
“Correlations between computer scored and stored RTI during learning activities (mean accuracy score across 18 lessons) and posttest normed scores were analyzed to test theory-driven hypotheses about which learning activities were related to specific treatment outcomes.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Spelling-responder percentage conflicts with the reported count
MinorIf only 4 of 17 students with dyslexia did not respond on spelling measures, 13 of 17 responded-about 76%, not nearly 60%. The latter percentage matches the separately reported count of 10 who improved in both spelling and handwriting.
“Nearly 60% with dyslexia were treatment responders to spelling instruction.”
“All but 4 of the 17 individual students with persisting, severe dyslexia were treatment responders on one or more of the spelling measures for which there was a treatment effect on the group analyses.”
Ethnicity counts exceed the sample size
MinorThe reported ethnicity counts sum to 37 children, but the study reports 35 participants.
Reported 35 · recomputed 37
“Parental self-reported ethnicity of the child included Asian-American (n=1), European-American (n=29), Pacific Islander (n=1), Hispanic (n=1), Black (n=1), Asian (n=1), mixed (n= 3).”
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Perelmutter, B., McGregor, K. K., & Gordon, K. R. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.005 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Wollscheid, S., Sjaastad, J., & Tømte, C. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.12.001 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Patchan, M. M., & Puranik, C. S. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.07.007 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“In particular, only a few prior studies empirically tested the effectiveness of using tablet computers for instruction and found a benefit for students in first through ninth grades in writing, reading, and math (Berninger et al., 2015; McKenna, 2012).”
BackgroundAlamargot, D., & Morin, M.-F. (2015) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2015.08.011 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Bonneton-Botté, N., Fleury, S., Girard, N., Magadou, M. L., Cherbonnier, A., Renault, M., Anquetil, É., & Jamet, É. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103831 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“Current digital learning environments such as tablet apps are designed to scaffold the teaching and learning process (Berninger, Nagy, Tanimoto, Thompson, & Abbott, 2015; MacKenna, 2012).”
BackgroundAssistive Technologies to Support Students With Dyslexia
Dawson, K., Antonenko, P., Lane, H. B., & Zhu, J. (2018) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0040059918794027 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Mobile cloud computing: An effective multimodal interface tool for students with dyslexia
Alghabban, W. G., Salama, R. M., & Altalhi, A. H. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.05.014 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Tecnologias da Informação e da Comunicação (TIC) aplicadas à dislexia: revisão de literatura
Cidrim, L., & Madeiro, F. (2017) · Revista CEFAC · doi:10.1590/1982-021620171917916 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
ICTs and Music in Special Learning Disabilities
Drigas, A. S., & Theodorou, P. (2016) · International Journal of Recent Contributions from Engineering Science & IT (iJES) · doi:10.3991/ijes.v4i3.6066 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The effect of pen and paper or tablet computer on early writing – A pilot study
Wollscheid, S., Sjaastad, J., Tømte, C. E., & Løver, N. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.03.008 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Weigelt-Marom, H., & Weintraub, N. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.10.008 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Wilson, J. (2016) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-016-9695-z · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Differential diagnosis of vergence and saccade disorders in dyslexia
Ward, L. M., & Kapoula, Z. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79089-1 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Alstad, Z., Barnett, A. L., Connelly, V. J., Berninger, V. M., & Sanders, E. A. (2015) · Journal of Writing Research · doi:10.17239/jowr-2015.06.03.1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationMatre, M. E., & Cameron, D. L. (2022) · Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology · doi:10.1080/17483107.2022.2149865 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…especially true with respect to assistive technology, including STT, as it is widely recommended in the IEPs of students in secondary education [27,33,34], and as an educational practice for teachers and teacher candidates in theoretical frameworks [35,36], policy documents [37,38] and…”
Is typewriting more resources-demanding than handwriting in undergraduate students?
Bouriga, S., & Olive, T. (2021) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-021-10137-6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The impact of computer‐based instruction on the development of EFL learners' writing skills
Zaini, A., & Mazdayasna, G. (2015) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12100 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Cidrim, L., Braga, P. H. M., & Madeiro, F. (2018) · Revista CEFAC · doi:10.1590/1982-0216201820111917 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Ruffini, C., Tarchi, C., & Pecini, C. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104936 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Caster, M., Norris, A., Butao, C., et al. (2015) · Journal of Cancer Education · doi:10.1007/s13187-015-0953-6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“In addition to having great potential utility in rural Africa, the standardization of educational information permitted by tablet-based programs may also have value in higher-resource settings, including in medical clinics [25, 26] or schools [27, 28] in the USA.”
Cerni, T., & Job, R. (2023) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-023-10418-2 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“This educational setting in which handwriting was trained from infancy and typing was later self-acquired is common in many countries (Berninger et al., 2015; Grabowski, 2008; Pinet et al., 2022; Poole & Preciado, 2016; Spilling et al., 2022; Weigelt-Marom & Weintraub, 2018) and allows us to…”
The effect of writing modality on recollection in children and adolescents
Frangou, S.-M., Wikgren, J., Sintonen, S., Kairaluoma, L., & Vasari, P. (2019) · Research in Learning Technology · doi:10.25304/rlt.v27.2239 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Thompson, R., Tanimoto, S. L., Lyman, R. D., Geselowitz, K., Begay, K. K., Nielsen, K. H., Nagy, W. E., Abbott, R., Raskind, M. H., & Berninger, V. M. (2017) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-017-9647-5 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“These include animation and other computersupported techniques for displaying the visible language on a screen (Berninger et al. 2015; Tanimoto et al. 2015).”
Self-citationHolz, H., Brandelik, K., Beuttler, B., Brandelik, J., & Ninaus, M. (2018) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v5i3.242 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“K i e l e r L e s ea u f b a u [ 37 ] F l ü ss i g l e s e n l e r n e n [ 36 ] P HON I T [ 43 ] L a u t g e t r e u e L e s e -”
A Review on Assistive Technologies for Students with Dyslexia
Lerga, R., Čandrlić, S., & Jakupović, A. (2021) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0010434500640072 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Moreover, performance during instruction on specific learning activities correlated with writing outcomes; and individual students tended to improve in the impaired skill associated with their diagnosis [34].”
BackgroundA scoping review to map research on children with dysgraphia, their carers, and educators
Kalenjuk, E., Laletas, S., Subban, P., & Wilson, S. (2021) · Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties · doi:10.1080/19404158.2021.1999997 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“In some cases, the assessments took over four hours, requiring food, drink, and movement breaks (Berninger et al., 2015).”
BackgroundBray, L. M. P., Skubik-Peplaski, C., & Ackerman, K. B. (2021) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Schools & Early Intervention · doi:10.1080/19411243.2021.1934227 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Developmental Language Disorder and Writing: A Scoping Review From Childhood to Adulthood
Tucci, A., & Choi, E. (2023) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2023_jslhr-22-00583 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Yanikoglu, B. A., Göğüş, A., & İnal, A. E. (2017) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-017-9532-3 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Similar studies on handwriting technologies with tablets (e.g., Berninger et al. 2015; Mann et al. 2015) support our observations that the different qualities of the digital pen technology have an influence on children’s handwriting experience and quality.”
BackgroundResultUnderutilized Technology Solutions for Student Writing
Rowland, A. L., Smith, S. J., Lowrey, K. A., & Abdulrahim, N. A. (2020) · Intervention in School and Clinic · doi:10.1177/1053451220914893 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“What still needs investigation is how best to combine writing instruction with technology-based supports in order to benefit struggling writers and students with disabilities (Berninger et al., 2015).”
BackgroundThompson, R., Tanimoto, S. L., Abbott, R. D., et al. (2016) · Assistive Technology · doi:10.1080/10400435.2016.1199066 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“These findings generalize to students with carefully diagnosed SLDs in writing for whom developmental disabilities and motor disorders related to medical disorders have been carefully ruled out (Berninger, 2015; Berninger, Richards, et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTeachers, AI Grammar Checkers, and the Newest Literacies: Emending Writing Pedagogy and Assessment
Toncic, J. (2020) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hurwitz, L. B., & Vanacore, K. (2022) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194221141093 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Broadly, edtech programs and their accompanying dashboards also can free teachers’ time to engage in behavior management to ensure all students are on-task (Berninger et al., 2015).”
BackgroundStudies on spelling in the context of dyslexia: a literature review
Cidrim, L., & Madeiro, F. (2017) · Revista CEFAC · doi:10.1590/1982-0216201719610317 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Richards, T. L., Peverly, S. T., Wolf, A. D., Abbott, R., Tanimoto, S. L., Thompson, R., Nagy, W. E., & Berninger, V. W. (2016) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2016.07.005 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationBonneton-Botté, N., Beucher-Marsal, C., Bara, F., Muller, J., Le-Corf, L., Quéméneur, M., & Dare, M. (2019) · Journal of Early Childhood Literacy · doi:10.1177/1468798419838587 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…digital tablets with artificial intelligence – providing learner writers with immediate KR and differentiated lessons – could significantly improve the teaching process as they enable one-to-one instruction (Berninger et al., 2015; McKenna, 2012; Simonnet et al., 2017; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialLimpo, T., Nunes, A., & Coelho, A. F. (2020) · Journal of Writing Research · doi:10.17239/jowr-2020.12.01.01 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Inklusion digital! Chancen und Herausforderungen inklusiver Bildung im Kontext von Digitalisierung
Ferencik-Lehmkuhl, D., Huynh, I., Laubmeister, C., Lee, C., Melzer, C., Schwank, I., Weck, H., Ziemen, K., & Klinkhardt, V. J. (2023) · Verlag Julius Klinkhardt eBooks · doi:10.35468/5990 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The quality of evidence in tablet‐assisted interventions for students with disabilities
Kim, M. K., Park, Y., & Coleman, M. B. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12206 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“With regard to the first sub‐category (i.e., sufficient information on participants’ disabilities or difficulties provided), only one study (33%; Berninger et al., 2015) met the criteria by receiving 3 points, while the other two studies received 1‐point scores because they cited school…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWRITE-RITE: ENHANCING HANDWRITING PROFICIENCY OF CHILDREN WITH DYSGRAPHIA
Rahim, N., & Jamaludin, Z. B. (2019) · Journal of Information and Communication Technology · doi:10.32890/jict2019.18.3.8290 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
John, S., & Renumol, V. G. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3172330 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Beers, S. F., Berninger, V. W., Mickail, T., & Abbott, R. (2018) · Learning Disabilities: a Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.18666/ldmj-2018-v23-i2-9008 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Published research showed that they could improve on these measures (Berninger et al., 2015; Tanimoto et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDifferential impacts of different keyboard inputting methods on reading and writing skills
Siok, W. T., & Liu, C. Y. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35268-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Signor, R., Claessen, M., & Leitão, S. (2020) · Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties · doi:10.1080/19404158.2019.1709216 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“As for writing, Berninger et al. (2015) report that many children with writing disabilities develop negative feelings, such as anxiety in relation to the act of writing, and the presence of computers could reduce the consequences arisen from difficulties.”
BackgroundNiedo, J., Tanimoto, S. L., Thompson, R. H., et al. (2016) · Learning Disabilities: a Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.18666/ldmj-2016-v21-i2-7751 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The fourth tested hypothesis was that, although there would not be a significant main effect for mode based on group analyses, replicating a finding of Berninger et al. (2014), intraindividual differences would be observed across the lessons.”
Self-citationRothe, J., Visser, L., Görgen, R., Kalmar, J., Schulte‐Körne, G., & Hasselhorn, M. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-022-01068-1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Besonders Schreibanfänger profitieren jedoch von der handschriftlichen Bearbeitung von Aufgaben, indem Buchstaben und größere Schrifteinheiten selbst produziert werden (Berninger et al. 2015).”
BackgroundSintonen, S. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12906 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Jung, S., Moeller, K., Klein, E., & Heller, J. (2021) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1675 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Specific Learning Disorders, Motor Disorders, and Communication Disorders
Deb, S. S., Roy, M., Bachmann, C., & Bertelli, M. O. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95720-3_18 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Datchuk, S. M., Smith, S., & Wang, L. (2019) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/0162643419832993 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…must be tempered due to concerns regarding threats to internal validity stemming from the pre–post nature of the experimental design and the extended intervention time; the 18 HAWK lessons were delivered across 5 months (Berninger et al., 2015) and 3 months (Tanimoto et al., 2015), respectively.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe design of technology-enhanced vocabulary learning: A systematic review
Zhou, K., Jin, F., Li, W., Song, Z., Huang, X., & Lin, C. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12423-y · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Technology-mediated writing: It’s not how much, but the thought that counts
Regan, K. S., Evmenova, A. S., Hughes, M. D., et al. (2021) · E-Learning and Digital Media · doi:10.1177/2042753021996387 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Recent research has shown writing with iPads to be an effective means for supporting students with disabilities to spell and compose sentences (Berninger et al., 2015), however, more research is needed to determine the effectiveness of mobile technology to support the writing behaviors of SWD…”
Background“Let’s Play a Game!” Serious Games for Arabic Children with Dictation Difficulties
Shohieb, S. M., Elhady, A. M., Mohsen, A., et al. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-65736-9_6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ghanamah, R. (2025) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-025-10682-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Does modifying visual feedback facilitate learning to write new pseudoletters?
Connan, J.-F., Jover, M., Saint-Cast, A., & Danna, J. (2022) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2022.103046 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Digital tablets in school classrooms encourage the development of new methods to help students learn to write by hand, thanks to computer-assisted supplementary feedback (FB) (Berninger et al., 2015; Bonneton-Botté et al., 2019, 2020).”
Zakopoulou, V., Toki, E. I., Dimakopoulos, G., et al. (2017) · Journals & Books Hosting (International Knowledge Sharing Platform) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Learning Potential in Narrative Writing: Measuring the Psychometric Properties of an Assessment Tool
Gurgel, L. G., de Oliveira, M. M. C., Joly, M. C. R. A., & Reppold, C. T. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00719 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Therefore, precise assessment methods are important for the analysis of and early intervention in persistent writing problems, including in the composition and construction of written texts (Berninger et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPapadopoulou, A.-K., Samsouris, C., Vlachos, F. M., Badcock, N. A., Phylactou, P., & Παπαδάτου-Παστού, Μ. (2023) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2023.2284407 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Writing is a multi-dimensional skill combining motor, linguistic, and other cognitive skills, but also sensory properties (Berninger et al., 2015; Feder & Majnemer, 2007; Limbu et al., 2019).”
BackgroundTyping Fluencies of 12–13-Year-Old Students with Dyslexia and Peers with Typical Development
Košir, J., Košir, A., Podlešek, A., et al. (2024) · Reading & Writing Quarterly · doi:10.1080/10573569.2024.2304758 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Design Studies for Stylus and Finger-Based Interaction in Writing Instruction on Tablets
Thompson, R., Tanimoto, S. L., Berninger, V. M., et al. (2016) · Human-computer interaction series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31193-7_4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationCharitaki, G., Charitaki, G., Soulis, S.-G., Soulis, S.-G., Tzivinikou, S., Tzivinikou, S., Peklari, E., & Peklari, E. (2018) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2018.96065 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A MOBILE APPLICATION TO IMPROVE MATHEMATICAL COMPETENCE FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
Retzepi, N. P., Espinosa, M. P. P., & Porlán, I. G. (2023) · European Journal of Education Studies · doi:10.46827/ejes.v10i6.4822 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Use of Assistive Technologies in Writing Situations with Dyslexic and Dysorthographic Students
Rousseau, N., Dumont, M., & Beaudoin, C. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.99803 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Meta-Analyzing the Writing Process of Structural Language to Develop New Writing Analysis Elements
Kim, E. B., Kim, E. Y., & Lee, O. (2020) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app10103479 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flores, L. G. (2025) · Neurodivergences · doi:10.56294/neuro2025268 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Chen, R.-S. (2018) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.70998 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Teachers employ the application of such tools to reveal the digital innovative value of perceived usefulness and innovative instructional intention, as well as to form a feasible model and apply flexible integration to advance students’ learning efficiency [21, 22].”
BackgroundTeaching Students to Write Sentences
Ritchey, K. D., Coker, D. L., Myers, M. C., et al. (2023) · Topics in Language Disorders · doi:10.1097/tld.0000000000000323 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Berninger et al. (2015) applied a technology-based intervention for students in need of intensive interventions that provided practice opportunities and feedback in handwriting, spelling, and sentence-writing skills.”
BackgroundBahari, A., & Li, R. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2024.2312910 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The fi nding suggests that technology-enhanced media and tools can signi fi cantly facilitate solving syntax-related language problems (Berninger et al., 2015; Vyatkina,2016 ).”
Cerni, T., Lonciari, I., & Job, R. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102119 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Schröder, L., & Vierbuchen, M. (2023) · Verlag Julius Klinkhardt eBooks · doi:10.35468/5990-22 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Veijola, T., Määttä, K., Uusiautti, S., & Äärelä, T. (2015) · Journal of Studies in Education · doi:10.5296/jse.v5i4.8573 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“According to Gavin (2003), the development of technological aids also develops learners’ possibilities to enrich their learning and introduce new ways of learning (see also e.g., Berninger et al., 2015).”
BackgroundGrace, C., Parks, M., & Oslick, M. E. (2018) · International Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities · doi:10.7710/2168-0620.1096 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Arfé, B., & Zancato, T. (2021) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194211001757 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Recent studies have confirmed the effectiveness of these instructional strategies for English-speaking spellers (Berninger et al., 2015) and young writers with dyslexia learning to spell in shallower orthographies (e.”
BackgroundWinkler, L. A. (2016) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hurwitz, L. B. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818872-9.00163-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Laverdure, P. A., & Wilmer, B. (2018) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Schools & Early Intervention · doi:10.1080/19411243.2018.1557396 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Boulc'H, L., & Bernard, F.-X. (2019) · Presses universitaires du Septentrion eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.septentrion.99427 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Schiff, R., Levy-Shimon, S., Sasson, A., Kimel, E., & Ravid, D. D. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-022-10376-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Dysgraphia and Learning to Write with Technology – An Evaluation
Husni, H., Rahim, N., Packeer, S. P., et al. (2022) · Electronic workshops in computing · doi:10.14236/ewic/hci2022.17 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Are Existing Mobile Writing Applications for Writing Difficulties Sufficient?
Polat, E., Albayrak, E., Hopcan, S., et al. (2023) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.23.73.10.5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Handwriting Difficulties: Different Manifestations and Underlying Functions
Weintraub, N. (2023) · Literacy studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36472-3_12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
John, S., & Renumol, V. G. (2024) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-024-19979-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Hence, the supplemental handwriting program with additional instruction would help the students to meet their unique needs [9, 28].”
Bray, L. M. P., & Skubik-Peplaski, C. (2022) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Schools & Early Intervention · doi:10.1080/19411243.2022.2114570 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“As computers, tablets, and smart phones became more prevalent, the perceived importance of handwriting diminished (Berninger et al., 2015).”
InfluentialAraújo, C., Osório, A. J., & Martins, A. P. L. (2019) · Encyclopedia of Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60013-0_230-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
(2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-44234-3.00024-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Improving Writing Outcomes for Students with Learning Disabilities
Rouse, A. G. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-40858-8_18-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
(2018) · i-manager s Journal on School Educational Technology · doi:10.26634/jsch.13.3.13955
Chang, J. (2016) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r36h4d176
Βασιλείου, Η., Πολυχρονοπούλου, Σ., Παπαδάτος, Ι., et al. (2020) · Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Επιστημών Εκπαίδευσης · doi:10.12681/edusc.2656
Araújo, C., Osório, A. J., & Martins, A. P. L. (2020) · Encyclopedia of Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10576-1_230
An Evidence-Based Psychological Treatment Program for Learning Disorders: The I Can Succeed Program
Kopelman-Rubin, D., Klomek, A. B., & Mufson, L. H. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21772-2_7
Inklusion digital! Chancen und Herausforderungen inklusiver Bildung im Kontext von Digitalisierung
:null (2023) · Verlag Julius Klinkhardt eBooks · doi:10.35468//5990 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Students With Specific Learning Difficulties
Vasileiou, I. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-8203-2.ch010
Dikkat Eksikliği ve Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu ile İlgili Her Şey
Aksu, G. G., Özbek, M. M., Aksu, H., Gökçen, C., Turğut, F. S., Tufan, A. E., Doğru, H., Dursun, O. B., Özdemir, E., Kılıçaslan, F., et al. (2022) · Akademisyen Kitabevi eBooks · doi:10.37609/akya.1366
Analysis of writing in personality disorders in prison population
Muñoz-López, L., García-Valdecasas, B. F., López-Rodríguez, S., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1391463
Exploring students' and teachers' perceptions towards handwriting and typing in assessment
Itani, M. M., Azad, A., Sinno, M., Sabbagh, R. A., & Majzoub, R. A. (2025) · International Conference on Medical Imaging, Electronic Imaging, Information Technologies, and Sensors (MIEITS) · doi:10.1117/12.3058693
“Embracing these tools can prepare new generations to tackle the educational challenges of evolving technology 6 .”
Optical Character Recognition for Early Handwriting Legibility Assessment
Cibrian, F. L., Anderson, K., Chen, Y. ‘., et al. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93838-2_11
Launay, E., Fiard, D., Bidet-Ildei, C., & Gimenes, M. (2025) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-025-00520-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Berninger, V. W., Nagy, W., Tanimoto, S., Thompson, R., & Abbott, R. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Seattle Pacific University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Berninger, Virginia W.
- Venue
- Computers & Education
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-02
- Volume
- 81
- Pages
- 154-168
- ISSN
- 0360-1315 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4217090
- OpenAlex
- W2090696716
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 6
- FWCI
- 46.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Computers & Education (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (P50HD071764)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Writing and Handwriting Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Assistive Technology in Communication and Mobility
- Keywords
- specific learning disabilities, dysgraphia, dyslexia, computer-assisted writing instruction, iPad, handwriting, spelling, syntax, primary and secondary school students
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