The changing racial and ethnic composition of the US population: Emerging American identities
Open accessAbstract
Images and interpretations of the past, present, and future of the American racial and ethnic landscape are contradictory. Many accounts focus on the increasing diversity that results from immigration and differential natural increase as well as the proliferation of racial and ethnic categories in census data. Less attention has been paid to the formation and erosion of racial and ethnic identities produced by intermarriage and ethnic blending. The framers and custodians of census racial classifications assume a “geographic origins” definition of race and ethnicity, but the de facto measures in censuses and social surveys rely on folk categories that vary over time and are influenced by administrative practices and sociopolitical movements. We illustrate these issues through an in‐depth examination of the racial and ethnic reporting by whites, blacks, Asians, and Hispanics in the 2000 census. The emerging pattern, labeled here as the “Americanization” of racial and ethnic identities, and most evident for whites and blacks, is of simplified racial identities with little acknowledgment of complex ancestries. National origin is the predominant mode of reporting racial and ethnic identities among Asians and Hispanics, especially first‐generation immigrants. The future of racial and ethnic identities is unknowable, but continued high levels of immigration, intermarriage, and social mobility are likely to blur contemporary divisions and boundaries.
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The black category in the US, like the white category, has evolved over the years into a complex web.
“As Perez and Hirschman (2009) rightly observed in their analysis of the US Census Bureau's methodology, the black category in the US, like the white category, has evolved over the years into a complex web.”
From Conceptualizing the Differences in the Perception and Internalization of Racism Between Black African Immigrants and African Americans in the United States (2025) · cites this paper as Perez and Hirschman (2009)
Low rates of reporting as multiracial or multiethnic is in line with previous studies; an analysis of the 2000 US Census shows that 95 percent of blacks and 97 percent of whites acknowledge only a single identity.
“Low rates of reporting as multiracial or multiethnic is in line with previous studies; an analysis of the 2000 US Census shows that 95 percent of blacks and 97 percent of whites acknowledge only a single identity.45”
From The genetic ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States (2015) · cites this paper as [45]
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Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the US Psychiatric Workforce: A Perspective and Recommendations
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Common disease-associated gene variants in a Saudi Arabian population
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Divergent Patterns in the Ethnic Transformation of Societies
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From Multiracial to Transgender?
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Black Immigrants, Perceptions of Difference, and the Abiding Sting of Blackness
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Ethnic Residential Clusters in Nima, Ghana
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Diabetes mellitus: an important risk factor for peripheral vascular disease
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Modeling the longitudinal changes of ancestry diversity in the Million Veteran Program
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Validity of Infant Race/Ethnicity from Birth Certificates in the Context of U.S. Demographic Change
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How Useful are the Main Existing Theories of Ethnic Conflict?
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Why do children show racial biases in their resource allocation decisions?
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“Just black” or not “just black?” ethnic attrition in the Nigerian-American second generation
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Latino Protestants and Their Congregations: Establishing an Agenda for Sociological Research
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The challenges to and the need for international research in educational leadership
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Ethnonationalism and White immigration attitudes
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Evaluation of Booster Breaks in the Workplace
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White privilege and teacher perceptions of teacher-child relationship quality
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Trends in parental self-efficacy between 1999 and 2014
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African American Nurses Describe Experiences of Mistrust and Trust While in Nursing School
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A preliminary model of health regarding sexual and ethnic minority older adults
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Rising Ethnic Diversity in the United States Accompanies Shifts Toward an Individualistic Culture
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The growth and diversity of Latino Protestants in America
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Fast and Effective Clustering Method for Ancestry Estimation
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Barack Obama's “American” Problem: Unhyphenated Americans in the 2008 Elections*
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Making sense of conflicting messages of multiracial identity: a systematic review
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- Authors
- Perez, A. D., & Hirschman, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Population and Development Review
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-03
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-51
- ISSN
- 0098-7921 (ISSN-L)
- 1728-4457
- PMC
- PMC2882688
- OpenAlex
- W1964179061
- Cited by
- 302
- References
- 188
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 28.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Population and Development Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD047289, R24HD042828, R24HD041028)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Migration, Refugees, and Integration
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies
- Keywords
- racial and ethnic composition, racial identity, ethnic identity, intermarriage, 2000 census, Americanization, national origin, immigration, natural increase, census categories, social mobility, Hispanic Americans, Asians, white, black
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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