Suicide among Black Children: An Integrated Model of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality Theory for Researchers and Clinicians

Opara, Ijeoma; Assan, Maame Araba; Pierre, Kimberly; Gunn, John F.; Metzger, Isha; Hamilton, Jahi; Arugu, Eileen

doi:10.1177/0021934720935641

Cited by 136Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchLGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy

Suicide among Black Children: An Integrated Model of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality Theory for Researchers and Clinicians

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Opara, Ijeoma, Assan, Maame Araba, Pierre, Kimberly, Gunn, John F., Metzger, Isha, Hamilton, Jahi, Arugu, Eileen·2020·Journal of Black Studies

DOI 10.1177/0021934720935641PMC PMC8301214

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Abstract

Recently, research has reported that the rates of suicide among Black children between the ages of 5 to 12-years-old are increasing as they are now more likely to commit suicide than White children. Yet, there are very few, if any, frameworks being used by researchers to explain the risks of suicide among Black children. Suicide research has overwhelmingly been focused on White youth thus leaving a critical gap in suicide research. This conceptual paper provides an integrated framework using the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality theory, as a guide for researchers, clinicians, and practitioners to incorporate culturally appropriate techniques in their work as a way to prevent suicide among Black children. This framework highlights racial discrimination, mental health, socioeconomic status, and sexual/gender minority status to be the most preeminent, yet understudied factors leading to suicide risk among Black children in the United States.

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Depression in African American and Black Caribbean Youth and the Intersection of Spirituality and Religion
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“In addition to poverty, research suggests that Black children residing in urban, under-resourced low-income environments often experience a greater risk of mental illness due to increased exposure to community violence, gang activity, and drug use (Cullins et al., 2019; Hastings & Snowden, 2019).”
Background
The Manifestations of Prejudice in Everyday Life: An Examination of Racial Microaggressions, Ethnophaulisms, and Integrated Threats as Observed by White Post-Secondary Youth in St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador
Baker, J. T. (2017) · Memorial University Research Repository (Memorial University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

Bronfenbrenner U, & Morris PA (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner RM (Ed.), Handbook of child development: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 793– 828). Wiley.
Joiner TE Jr. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.

Sorted by citations

Suicide in young people: screening, risk assessment, and intervention
Hughes, J. L., Horowitz, L. M., Ackerman, J. P., Adrian, M. C., Campo, J. V., & Bridge, J. A. (2023) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2022-070630 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Intersecting Structural Oppression and Suicidality Among Black Sexual Minority Male Adolescents and Emerging Adults
English, D., Boone, C. A., Carter, J. A., Talan, A. J., Busby, D. R., Moody, R. L., Cunningham, D. J., Bowleg, L., & Rendina, H. J. (2022) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12726 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Setting a Ground Zero Research Agenda for Preventing Black Youth Suicide
Sheftall, A. H., & Miller, A. B. (2021) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.1112 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Why do adolescents attempt suicide? Insights from leading ideation-to-action suicide theories: a systematic review
Kirshenbaum, J. S., Pagliaccio, D., Bitran, A., Xu, E., & Auerbach, R. P. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-02914-y · Cited by 63 · see citing works
The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide: State of the Science
Robison, M., Udupa, N. S., Rice, T. B., Wilson, E., Joiner, T. E., & Rogers, M. L. (2024) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2024.04.008 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Culturally responsive assessment of suicidal thoughts and behaviors in youth of color
Molock, S. D., Boyd, R. C., Alvarez, K., Cha, C., Denton, E.-G., Glenn, C. R., Katz, C. C., Mueller, A. S., Meca, A., Meza, J. I., et al. (2023) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001140 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Future Directions in Suicide and Self-Injury Revisited: Integrating a Developmental Psychopathology Perspective
Oppenheimer, C. W., Glenn, C. R., & Miller, A. B. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2022.2051526 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“For example, a Black child’s suicide risk may result from exposure to racism and discrimination in their environment (Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
School Risk and Protective Factors of Suicide: A Cultural Model of Suicide Risk and Protective Factors in Schools
Marraccini, M. E., Griffin, D. C., O’Neill, J. C., Martinez, R. R., Chin, A. J., Toole, E. N., Grapin, S. L., & Naser, S. C. (2021) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2020.1871305 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Black Youth Suicide Crisis: Prevalence Rates, Review of Risk and Protective Factors, and Current Evidence-Based Practices
Meza, J. I., Patel, K., & Bath, E. P. J. (2022) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20210034 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Online racial discrimination, suicidal ideation, and traumatic stress in a national sample of Black adolescents
Tynes, B. M., Maxie-Moreman, A., Hoang, T.-M. H., Willis, H. A., & English, D. (2024) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.4961 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Heterogeneity in suicide risk: Evidence from personalized dynamic models
Coppersmith, D. D. L., Kleiman, E. M., Millner, A. J., Wang, S. B., Arizmendi, C., Bentley, K. H., DeMarco, D., Fortgang, R. G., Zuromski, K. L., Maimone, J. S., et al. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104574 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Understanding Associations Between Race/Ethnicity, Experiences of Discrimination, and Psychotic-like Experiences in Middle Childhood
Karcher, N. R., Klaunig, M. J., Elsayed, N. M., Taylor, R. L., Jay, S. Y., & Schiffman, J. E. (2022) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2022.03.025 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Impact of Online Racism on Suicide Ideation Through Interpersonal Factors Among Racial Minority Emerging Adults: The Role of Perceived Burdensomeness and Thwarted Belongingness
Keum, B. T. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221117247 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“The IPTS framework has been applied to study how racial discrimination, as a form of an adverse (even trauma-like) social event, may be linked to suicide ideation through feelings of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness (Opara et al., 2020).”
Method
Mental health burden among Black adolescents: the need for better assessment, diagnosis and treatment engagement
Opara, I., Weissinger, G., Lardier, D. T., Lanier, Y., Carter, S. E., & Brawner, B. M. (2021) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2021.1879345 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“While there is documented literature that accounts for exposure to environmental stressors such as neighborhood violence, high rates of poverty, and community trauma (Opara et al., 2020a), we did not take into account the role of environment on the sample.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Racial and gender discrimination by teachers: Risks for Black girls’ depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation.
Butler‐Barnes, S. T., Leath, S. C., Inniss‐Thompson, M. N., Allen, P. C., D'Almeida, M. E. D. A., & Boyd, D. T. (2022) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000538 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Food Insecurity and Suicidal Behaviors Among US High School Students*
Brown, A. D., Seligman, H. K., Sliwa, S. A., Barnidge, E. K., Krupsky, K. L., Demissie, Z., & Liese, A. D. (2022) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/josh.13199 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“26,27 In general, studies suggest that FI may be linked to suicidal behaviors such as suicidal ideation and suicide attempt among adolescents due to mechanisms such as increased nutritional deficiency, stigma, stress and social isolation.”
Factors Associated with Suicidal Behavior in Adolescents: An Umbrella Review Using the Socio-Ecological Model
Prades-Caballero, V., Pérez, J. J. N., & Carbonell, Á. (2024) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-024-01368-2 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“In this sense, and in line with the theory of intersectionality, individual factors should be understood as the product of systemic inequalities resulting from the superimposition of multiple elements (Opara et al., 2020; Robertson et al., mental health care, and school intervention programs.”
Understanding suicide risk for youth who are both Black and Native American: The role of intersectionality and multiple marginalization
Wiglesworth, A., Clement, D. N., Wingate, L. R., & Klimes‐Dougan, B. (2022) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12851 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The Roles of Minority Stress and Thwarted Belongingness in Suicidal Ideation among Cisgender and Transgender/Nonbinary LGBTQ+ Individuals
Kaufman, E. A., Meddaoui, B., Seymour, N. E., & Victor, S. E. (2022) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2022.2127385 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Such findings highlight the need to consider intersecting identities in relation to suicide risk and complement conceptual frameworks that have recently emerged in the literature (e.g., Langwerden, Thompson, & Wagner, 2021; Opara et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResult
The Burden of Not Belonging: A Qualitative Study of the Applicability of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide Constructs of Belongingness and Burdensomeness to Ethnocultural Minoritized Youth
Vélez‐Grau, C., Magan, I. M., & Gwadz, M. V. (2023) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2023.02.004 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Do We Belong? Examining the Associations Between Adolescents’ Perceptions of School Belonging, Teacher Discrimination, Peer Prejudice and Suicide
Boyd, D. T., Gale, A., Quinn, C. R., Mueller-Williams, A. C., Jones, K. V., Williams, E., & Lateef, H. A. (2023) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-023-01622-5 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A Trauma- and Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (JEDI)-Informed Approach to Suicide Prevention in School: Black Boys’ Lives Matter
Marraccini, M. E., Lindsay, C. A., Griffin, D. C., Greene, M. J., Simmons, K. T., & Ingram, K. M. (2022) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2021.2010502 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…conferring risk for suicide in all youth, in Black Americans, the impact of systemic, structural, interpersonal, and internalized racism is a key driver of negative health outcomes (Bath & Njoroge, 2021; Lambert et al., 2009) including suicidal ideation (Assari et al., 2017b; Opara et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
A call to integrate health equity into learning health system research training
Coley, R. Y., Duan, K. I., Hoopes, A. J., Lapham, G. T., Liljenquist, K. S., Marcotte, L. M., Ramirez, M., & Schuttner, L. (2022) · Learning Health Systems · doi:10.1002/lrh2.10330 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“reflect intersectionality of suicide risk factors such as race, ethnicity, and gender.(31,32)”
Background
Perceived discrimination, mental health help-seeking attitudes, and suicide ideation, planning, and attempts among black young adults
Boyd, D. T., Quinn, C. R., Durkee, M. I., Williams, E. G., Constant, A. S., Washington, D. M., Butler‐Barnes, S. T., & Ewing, A. P. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-19519-1 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Structural adverse childhood experiences associated with suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and repetitive nonsuicidal self‐injury among racially and ethnically minoritized youth
Jewett, P. I., Taliaferro, L. A., Borowsky, I. W., Mathiason, M. A., & Areba, E. M. (2024) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13084 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Youth Suicide Prevention and Intervention
Ackerman, J. P., & Horowitz, L. M. (2022) · SpringerBriefs in psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06127-1 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Structural indicators of suicide: an exploration of state-level risk factors among Black and White people in the United States, 2015–2019
Robertson, R. A., Standley, C. J., Gunn, J. F., & Opara, I. (2022) · Journal of Public Mental Health · doi:10.1108/jpmh-09-2021-0111 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cumulative Police Exposures, Police Violence Stress, and Depressive Symptoms: A Focus on Black LGBQ Youth in Baltimore City, Maryland
Jackson, D. B., Fix, R. L., Testa, A. M., Webb, L., Toro, J. D., & Alang, S. (2024) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-024-00858-8 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Even so, scholars have overlooked how LGBQ mental health disparities might stem from cumulative police exposures and police violence stress for Black youth in particular, despite a handful of studies documenting LGBQ disparities in police contact, including police harassment [25–27].”
Adolescent suicide attempts in the United States: When suicide ideation and suicide capability interact
Vélez‐Grau, C., Romanelli, M., & Lindsey, M. A. (2022) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12845 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Potential Mechanisms Underlying Suicidality in Autistic People with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Testing Hypotheses from the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide
Moseley, R., Gregory, N. J., Smith, P., Allison, C., Cassidy, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2023) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2022.0042 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The role of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness in passive suicide ideation among Latinx and Black youth
Vélez-Grau, C., Mcternan, M., Mufson, L., & Lindsey, M. A. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour · doi:10.1111/sltb.13003 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Misuse of Prescription Opioids and Suicidal Behaviors Among Black Adolescents: Findings from the 2017 and 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey
Baiden, P., Eugene, D. R., Nicholas, J. K., Spoor, S. P., Brown, F. A., & LaBrenz, C. A. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01369-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Moreover, researchers have historically examined suicidal behaviors among White adolescents, resulting in a lack of knowledge of the potential risk factors of suicidal behaviors for Black adolescents [9].”
Background
Depression and suicidal ideation among Black individuals in Canada: mediating role of traumatic life events and moderating role of racial microaggressions and internalized racism
Darius, W. P., Farahi, S. M. M. M., Kogan, C. S., Ndengeyingoma, A., & Cénat, J. M. (2024) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-024-02641-1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Is Violence, Violence no Matter Where it Strikes? Adjudicated Boys, Thwarted Belongingness, Perceived Burdensomeness, and Acquired Capability for Suicide
Wyk, J. A. V. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211055080 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Centering Community Strengths and Resisting Structural Racism to Prevent Youth Suicide: Learning from American Indian and Alaska Native Communities
Wexler, L. M., White, L. A., O’Keefe, V. M., Rasmus, S., Haroz, E. E., Cwik, M. F., Barlow, A., Goklish, N. A., Elliott‐Groves, E., Pearson, C. R., et al. (2024) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2023.2300321 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…suicidality (Brooks, Hong, Cheref, & Walker, 2020; Elliott-Groves, 2018; Standley & Foster-Fishman, 2021; McDermott, Hughes, & Rawlings, 2018; Wyman Battalen et al., 2020; Opara et al., 2020; Madubata, Spivey, Alvarez, Neblett, & Prinstein, 2021; Mart � ınez-Al � es, Jiang, Keyes, & Gradus, 2021).”
The Cultural Theory and Model of Suicide for Youth
Chu, J. P., O'Neill, S. E., Ng, J. F., & Khoury, O. (2022) · SpringerBriefs in psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06127-1_11 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Advances in Research on Adolescent Suicide and a High Priority Agenda for Future Research
Clayton, M. G., Pollak, O. H., Owens, S., Miller, A. B., & Prinstein, M. J. (2021) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12614 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…advocated for strengths-based, culturally relevant research that works with community partners to promote resilience, racial empowerment, and access to services in order to reduce STB risk among African American adolescents (Merchant, Kramer, Joe, Venkataraman, & King, 2009; Opara et al., 2020).”
Relationship between suicide ideation and attempts, bully victimization, dating violence, and depressive symptoms among Black and Hispanic youth
Opara, I., Weerakoon, S. M., Brooks, J. R., Choe, T., Gunn, J. F., & Thrasher, S. S. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13015 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citation
Bibliometric Analysis of Suicide Research Among Black Youth
Mushunje, R., & Graves, S. L. (2021) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984211032209 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Individual and Contextual Risk and Protective Factors for Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors among Black Adolescents with Arrest Histories
Quinn, C. R., Duprey, E. B., Boyd, D. T., Lynch, R. E., Mitchell, M., Ross, A., Handley, E. D., & Cerulli, C. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9040522 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“We also used a bio-ecological model to frame this study to investigate suicide among Black youth [24] characterized by distinct and intersecting risk and protective factors that contribute to their suicide risk [25].”
Method
Protective factors for suicidal ideation among Black adolescents indirectly exposed to community violence
Lambert, S. F., Boyd, R. C., & Ialongo, N. S. (2022) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12839 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The Impact of Language on the Mental Health of Black Quebecers
Nweze, N., Davids, J., Fang, X., Holding, A. C., & Koestner, R. (2023) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01412-5 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Mental Health Service Utilization, School Experiences, and Religious Involvement Among a National Sample of Black Adolescents Who Attempted Suicide: Examining Within and Cross-Race Group Differences
Goodwill, J. R., & Yasui, M. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-022-00888-8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Existing conceptual and theoretical advances that uniquely address Black youth’s suicide risk and protective factors are also insufficient and limited in scope (Opara et al., 2020).”
Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts Among Black Adolescents Based on the 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Survey
Baiden, P., LaBrenz, C. A., Kim, Y. J., Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Thrasher, S. S. (2023) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984231170494 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“, racial and ethnic, sex, and sexual identity; Crenshaw, 1991; Yuval-Davis, 2006) can increase an individual’s chance of experiencing psychological distress and potentially increase the risk of suicidal behaviors (Opara et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
Growth in Suicide Rates Among Children During the Illicit Opioid Crisis
Powell, D. (2023) · Demography · doi:10.1215/00703370-11077660 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Many suicidal risk factors for children have different associations by sex, age, race, and ethnicity (Brent et al. 1999; Garnefski and Diekstra 1997; Opara et al. 2020), suggesting the importance of studying heterogeneous effects among demographic groups.”
Applying an ecosocial framework to address racial disparities in suicide risk among black youth
Cohen, D., Lindsey, M. A., & Lochman, J. E. (2021) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22588 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Emerging Risk of Adolescent Depression and Suicide Detected Through Pediatric Primary Care Screening
Davis, M., Jones, J. D., Schwartz, K. T. G., Dysart, G. C., So, A., & Young, J. F. (2023) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsad088 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Suicide Methods and Trends Across Race/Ethnicity, Age, and Sex Groups in Chicago, Illinois, 2015–2021
Goodwill, J. R., & Baccile, R. (2024) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2023.307511 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Investigating the Role of Suicidality and Ethnic Identity among Black Adolescents: A Latent Profile Analysis
Bernard, D. L., Adams, L. B., Lateef, H. A., Azasu, E., & Joe, S. (2022) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2022.2114868 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Thus, the Undifferentiated group may capture adolescents who are actively exploring and consolidating what it means to be Black in Eurocentric dominated society, which is a critical, yet, particularly vulnerable period for STBs (Opara et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
Trends in Suicidality and Bullying among New York City Adolescents across Race and Sexual Identity: 2009–2019
English, D., Kelman, E., Cruz, N. L. D. L., Thompson, A. B., Le, K., Garretson, M., Viswanath, A. L., Brahmbhatt, D., Lockwood, C., Busby, D. R., et al. (2024) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-024-00860-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Suicidal Behaviors in Early Adolescence: The Interaction Between School Connectedness and Mental Health
Eugene, D. R., Blalock, C., Nmah, J., & Baiden, P. (2022) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-022-09559-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Profiles of Suicidal Ideation Among Black Male Adolescents: Examination of Individual and Socioecological Predictors
Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., Gilreath, T. D., Burnside, A. N., Mintah, P., & Lindsey, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2023.2222395 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…our research informs the tenets of new culturally and contextually relevant frameworks of suicidal ideation for Black youth that extend determinants of suicidal ideation beyond the individual and focus on the role of socioecological risk factors (e.g., Opara et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2022).”
Influential
Factors Associated with Suicide Risk Behavior Outcomes Among Black High School Adolescents
Richardson, S. C., Gunn, L. H., Phipps-Bennett, M., & Azasu, E. (2023) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-023-01312-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Including an intersectional perspective is critical to understanding and assessing STB and ensuring the safety of BHSA [8].”
Family as a Pathway to Suicidal Behaviors Through Depression Symptoms and Internalized Homophobia
Boyd, D. T., Sterrett-Hong, E., Scott, E. D., Allen, J. L., Smith, B., & Quinn, C. R. (2024) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-024-01956-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Teachers’ Racial Bias: Can Teachers Rate an African American Boy Similarly to His Racial Counterparts on Problem Behaviors for a Broad Rating Scale?
Woods, I. L. (2022) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2022.2041212 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Furthermore, African American families are more likely to be economically marginalized through career earnings and live in underresourced, seg regated communities (Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Black Youth Suicidal Behavior: What We Know and Where We Go from Here
Sheftall, A. H., & Boyd, R. C. (2022) · SpringerBriefs in psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06127-1_12 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Race moderates the relation between internalized stigma and suicidal thoughts and behaviors in youth with psychosis-risk syndromes and early psychosis.
Akouri-Shan, L., Jay, S. Y., DeLuca, J. S., Petti, E., Klaunig, M. J., Rouhakhtar, P. R., Martin, E. A., Reeves, G. M., & Schiffman, J. E. (2022) · Stigma and Health · doi:10.1037/sah0000417 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Association between sexual identity, health risk behaviors, and mental health outcomes among Black adolescents: Findings from a population-based study
Baiden, P., Szlyk, H. S., Peoples, J. E., Vázquez, M. M., Harrell, D. R., & Cavazos‐Rehg, P. A. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100511 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Risk and Protective Factor specific to African American Youth and Adolescents: A Systematic Review
Reed, D. D., & Adams, R. D. (2020) · Journal of Family Strengths · doi:10.58464/2168-670x.1435 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…propose that individuals engaged in formulation of policies to begin denoting the psychological and social influences of police brutality impact upon African American youth and adolescents at risk for suicidal ideation (Alang, McAlpine, McCreedy, & Hardeman, 2017; Howard, 2016; Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Suicidal Behaviors in Youth with Foster Care Experience
Katz, C. C., Busby, D. R., & Wall, E. V. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82465-5_15 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Structural racism and suicide risk among Black youth: A systematic review
Bell, K., Nicoletti, T. R., & Ammerman, B. A. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425100667 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The intersection of racism and thwarted belongingness and hopelessness demonstrated by Douglas et al. (2024), confirms the theory that Black youth likely experience these interpersonal factors within the context of their racial identity (Opara et al., 2020).”
Influential
Race-Based Rejection Sensitivity and the Integrated Motivational Volitional Model of Suicide in a Sample of Black Women
Clement, D. N., Awad, S. A., Oliphant, V. N., & Wingate, L. R. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221147265 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The existing research on intersectionality and health highlights the impact of multiplicative identities and the concurrent risk factors that stem from those intersecting identities (Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Fearlessness about death and suicidal ideation: Religious identity matters
Hart, F. G., Stewart, J. G., Hudson, C. C., Fan, K., Björgvinsson, Þ., & Beard, C. (2024) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13069 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A systems science approach to identifying data gaps in national data sources on adolescent suicidal ideation and suicide attempt in the United States
Giabbanelli, P. J., Rice, K., Nataraj, N., Brown, M. M., & Harper, C. R. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15320-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cultural Consensus Modeling to identify culturally relevant reasons for and against suicide among Black adolescents
Hill, R. M., Busby, D. R., Brown, J. L., Sumlin, E. D., Fernandez, E., & Sharp, C. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13000 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Quantifying the Representation of Black Adolescents in Suicide Intervention Research
Sumlin, E. D., Hill, R., Asim, N., Busby, D. R., Brown, J. L., & Sharp, C. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01113-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Here, we drew on several influential recent reviews (Sheftall et al., 2022a, b; Sheftall & Miller, 2021; Opara et al., 2020; Meza et al., 2022; and Oppenheimer et al., 2022).”
Influential
At Risk and A Risk: Disrupting Anti-Black Hate Toward Black Males in K-12 Schools
Howard, J., McAdoo, G., & Howard, T. C. (2025) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/00420859251371682 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…among Black males has increased at a disturbing rate in recent years, and antiblack racism at the structural and interpersonal level is widely recognized as a contributing factor in this troubling trend (Kogan et al., 2024; Marraccini et al., 2023; Opara et al., 2020; Polanco-Roman et al., 2024).”
Achieving Equity in Child and Adolescent Mental Health by Addressing Racism Through Prevention Science
Goodrum, N. M., Cooper, D. K., Edmunds, S. R., Wippold, G. M., Bradshaw, J. L., Nguyen, J. K., Milburn, N. G., & Are, F. G. (2023) · Adversity and Resilience Science · doi:10.1007/s42844-023-00104-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“For example, Opara et al. (2020) expanded the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide to incorporate intersectionality theory including consideration of risk and protective factors across multiple contextual levels.”
Suicide and Suicide Attempts During Adolescence
Esposito-Smythers, C. L., Whitmyre, E. D., Defayette, A. B., López, R., Maultsby, K. D., & Spirito, A. (2021) · Comprehensive Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00059-5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Profiles of Risk for Self-injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Among System-Impacted Girls of Color
Sheehan, A. E., Bounoua, N., Rose, R. E., Sadeh, N., & Javdani, S. (2023) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2023.06.010 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Machine learning to investigate policy-relevant social determinants of health and suicide rates in the United States
Xiao, Y., Meng, Y., Brown, T. T., Tsai, A. C., Snowden, L. R., Chow, J. C., Pathak, J., & Mann, J. J. (2025) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-025-00424-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Perceived Racial Discrimination as a Risk Factor for Suicidal Ideation in Black College Students
Rule, A., Molock, S. D., Job, S., & Siff, L. (2025) · Journal of College Student Mental Health · doi:10.1080/28367138.2025.2502934 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“From this theoretical standpoint, Black youth in particular may be experiencing key interpersonal-psychological components of suicide but may be doing so within a broader ecological system (Opara et al., 2020).”
School-Based Suicide Prevention through Gatekeeper Training: The Role of Natural Leaders
Exner‐Cortens, D., Baker, E. A., Conde, C. F., Bavel, M. V., Roy, M., & Pawluk, C. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health · doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2022-020 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Adolescent firearm suicide risk patterns: A latent class analysis using U.S. National Violent Death Reporting System surveillance data, 2007–2017
Osborne, M. C., Brown, S., Culbreth, R. E., Lai, B. S., & Gilmore, A. K. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106101 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Black adolescents' racial discrimination and suicide behaviors: Testing perceived school safety as a protective moderator
Williams, C. D., Shipman-Lacewell, J. R., Shih, S., Wynn, A., Elias, M. D. J., & Valrie, C. R. (2023) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12877 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Trapped in a Pathological Paradigm: Critiques of Suicidology Scholarship and Practice
Jackson‐Lowman, H., Chioneso, N. A., Utsey, S. O., & Williams, S. C. (2023) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984231169598 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Africana lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth (LGBTQ) often exhibited greater vulnerability to suicide attempts compared to other LGBTQ ethnoracial groups and heterosexual Africana youth (Chu et al., 2013; Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Informing Equitable Prevention Practices: A Statewide Disaggregated Analysis of Suicide for Ethnoracially Minoritized Adolescents
Richardson, S. C., Williams, J. A., III, Vance, M. M., Phipps-Bennett, M., Stevenson, A. P., & Herbert, R. (2024) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-024-01654-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…comprehensive suicide prevention strategies, efforts for inclusive and intersectionality-informed research approaches must be realized, allowing for an understanding of the unique needs of diverse identities (Bath & Njoroge, 2021; Bridge, 2018; Opara et al., 2020; Polanco-Roman & Miranda, 2022).”
Background
Leadership Matters: Supporting the Mental Health Needs of Black and Latina/o Students in a Post COVID-19 World
Walker, L., Sullivan, M., & Stewart-Walker, N. (2022) · Journal of Educational Leadership in Action · doi:10.62608/2164-1102.1105 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A Missing Link in Suicide Prevention and Intervention: Preparing the Bachelor of Social Work Workforce to Respond to Suicide in Practice
Sanford, R., Frey, L. M., & Maple, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2025.2560822 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…closely with social work values and ethics, such as the social–ecological framework (Cramer & Kapusta, 2017), integrated model of IPTS and intersectionality (Opara et al., 2020), the cultural theory of suicide (Chu et al., 2010), and the social roots of suicide (Mueller et al., 2021) Upstream…”
Intersectional analysis of suicide risk among transgender and non-binary people
Santos, H., Bauer, G. R., Joiner, T. E., Surachman, A., Lê‐Scherban, F., & Scheim, A. I. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100496 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Black youth suicide is not new: Early contributions, recent advancements, and remaining gaps in the field
Goodwill, J. R. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100480 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
School Connectedness and Suicidal Ideation Among Black Youth: A Latent Class Analysis
Harrell, D. R., Richardson, S. C., & Sheftall, A. H. (2025) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-025-09778-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…face numerous stressors and behavioral challenges that heighten their risk for suicidal ideation and attempts, including adverse socio-economic conditions, experiences of racism and discrimination, family dysfunction, and delinquent behavior (CBC, 2019; Opara et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2022).”
An Examination of Suicidal Behavior among Black College Students with Exposure to Police Violence
Szlyk, H. S., Motley, R., Joe, S., Nonas-Barnes, L., & Azasu, E. (2022) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/swac046 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
20 years of studies of risk and intersectionality: a bibliometric overview
Nygren, K. G., Olofsson, A., & Öhman, S. (2024) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2024.2340023 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Intersectionality is in this cluster sometimes also framed as a critique towards the application of predominant theories of suicide as universally and their embeddedness in whiteness (see for example Opara et al. 2020; Sheftall & Miller 2021).”
Integrating a Strengths‐Based Intersectional Approach to the Study of Suicide Risk Among Black Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Questioning Youth
Taliaferro, L. A., Muehlenkamp, J. J., Price, M. N., Eden, T. M., Cook, S., Moore, K. L., Dvorak, R. D., & Schrimshaw, E. W. (2025) · Mental Health Science · doi:10.1002/mhs2.70025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Suicide Risk and Protective Factors Among Medicaid-Enrolled Black Youth With a Mental Health Diagnosis
Fontanella, C. A., Xia, X., Llamocca, E. N., Steelesmith, D. L., Brock, G. N., Xiao, Y., Bridge, J. A., Young, A. B., Campo, J. V., & Ruch, D. A. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.59657 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Carrying Firearms and Suicide Risk Among Adolescents
Lindsey, M. A., Stephens, J. R. B., Singletary, B. D., McGuire, T. C., & Dixon, J. K. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.26924 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
From Trauma to Transformation: the Role of the Trauma Surgeon in the Care of Black Transgender Women
Motley, D., Forberg, P. L., Pagkas-Bather, J., Bouris, A. M., & Schneider, J. A. (2023) · Current Trauma Reports · doi:10.1007/s40719-023-00254-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Preparing School Counselors for Culturally Informed Suicide Response
Brown, E., Edwin, M., & Purgason, L. L. (2024) · Teaching and Supervision in Counseling · doi:10.7290/tsc06kemk · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity, Thwarted Belongingness, and Perceived Burdensomeness Among Latinx and Black Adolescents in the United States
Vélez‐Grau, C., McTernan, M. L., Lindsey, M. A., & Mufson, L. H. (2025) · Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1176/appi.prcp.20240111 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Youth Gang Membership, Marginalized Identities, and Suicidality Disparities: Intersectional Implications for Research and Practice
Bishop, A. S., Nurius, P. S., Fleming, C. M., Klein, R. T., & Rousson, A. N. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-022-00902-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Intersec-tionality theory explicitly calls attention to the underlying power structures and social determinants that produce health inequalities, and research is needed to identify the structural and environmental factors associated with adolescent suicide (e.g., Opara et al., 2020).”
The Role of Protective Factors in Moderating the Association Between Racism and Suicidal Ideation or Depression Among Rural Black Youth: A Scoping Review
Pestaner, M. C., Crumb, L., Crowe, A., & Cuthrell, K. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x231222032 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“As such, research is needed on the intersection of contextual risk and protective factors for Black youth (Bennett & Joe, 2015) to facilitate the development of culturally relevant suicide risk interventions tailored to the contextual needs of Black youth (Opara et al., 2020).”
Suicide Prevention Research from Individual to Social Approach
Uludağ, Z., Daşçı, E., & Keleş, A. E. (2024) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1506867 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Development and Validation of the Counselor Beliefs About Cultural Impact on Suicidality Scale
Edwin, M., Brown, E., Belcher, L. T., & Ashrafabadi, F. (2025) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x251315411 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Opara et al. (2020) provided an integrated model of intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1991) and the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005) to examine suicide among Black children.”
Educational cultural visionaries: how BlackQueer adults mentor, embrace, and love on BlackQueer youth
Webb, J. M. (2025) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/09518398.2025.2470935 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Marginalization from COVID-19 Anti-Asian Racism and Smoking among Asian American Emerging Adults
Wong, M. J., Keum, B. T., Xie, L., & Na, J. Y. (2025) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-025-09443-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…(IPTS) to understand how racial discrimination (i.e., negative or traumatic social event) may be linked to feelings of unmet social needs (thwarted belongingness) and feelings of being a burden to others in society (perceived burdensomeness; Keum, 2023; Keum & Wong, 2023; Opara et al., 2020).”
Examining Pathways Among Teen Dating Violence, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation Among Black Girls: A Cross-Sectional Study
Opara, I., Weerakoon, S. M., Srikanth, N., Brooks, J. R., Wan, X., & Willie, T. C. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251353484 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Opara et al. (2020) developed an integrated framework to explain suicide ideation and death by suicide among Black children using Intersectionality Theory (Crenshaw, 1991) and the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (Joiner, 2005).”
Self-citation
Caregiver and Birth Parent Influences on Depression and Anxiety in African American Children in Kinship Care
Washington, T., Coley, S. L., Blakey, J. M., Walton, Q. L., Labban, J. D., Tadese, H. B., Martinez, D. N., & Leathers, S. J. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13162025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In one study, 41% of Black adolescents reported trauma linked to anxiety and depression [7].”
Breaking the silence on suicide among pre-adolescent children
Muwanguzi, M., Kule, M., Ataryeba, H., Rukundo, G. Z., Harms, S., & Kaggwa, M. M. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-025-00999-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Performing Strength: Racialized Masculinity in the Lived Experiences of Black Men at Risk of Suicide
Adams, L. B., DeVinney, A., Aljuboori, D., Bachman, S., Lateef, H. A., Habteyesus, A., & Willie, T. C. (2026) · American Journal of Men's Health · doi:10.1177/15579883251408351 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Extant scholarship challenges this narrow lens, emphasizing the importance of applying an intersectional framework in understanding suicide risk for Black Americans (Canetto, 2021; Opara et al., 2020; Standley, 2022; Wiglesworth et al., 2022).”

Structural racism and suicide risk among Black youth: A systematic review
Bell, K., Nicoletti, T. R., & Ammerman, B. A. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425100667 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Considering Developmental Phenotypes of Suicidality for Young Black Children
Keenan, K. E., Stepp, S. D., Anderson, L. A., Humphries, M. L., Hipwell, A. E., & Mbayiwa, K. (2024) · Mental Health Science · doi:10.1002/mhs2.96
Examining the integrated model of the interpersonal‐psychological theory of suicide and intersectionality theory among Black male adolescents
Douglas, R. D., Alli, J., Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., Opara, I., & Gilreath, T. D. (2024) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13066 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
Racial, ethnic, and cultural expressions of interpersonal psychological theory of suicide (RECEIPTS): An integrated model of structural racism and suicide risk.
Adams, L. B., Brooks, J. R., Cubbage, J., & Bernard, D. L. (2025) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001545 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Coloring Outside the Lines: Making Black and Brown Lives Matter in the Prevention of Youth Suicide
Bath, E., & Njoroge, W. F. M. (2021) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2020.09.013 · Cited by 35 · see citing works

Authors: Opara, I., Assan, M. A., Pierre, K., Gunn, J. F., Metzger, I., Hamilton, J., & Arugu, E.
Affiliations: Stony Brook University (US)
Public Health Management Corporation (US)
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
University of Georgia (US)
Columbia University (US)
Corresponding author: Opara, Ijeoma
ORCID: Opara, Ijeoma
Pierre, Kimberly
Gunn, John F.
Metzger, Isha
Venue: Journal of Black Studies
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2020-06-15
Volume: 51
Issue: 6
Pages: 611-631
ISSN: 0021-9347 (ISSN-L)
1552-4566
DOI: 10.1177/0021934720935641
PMC: PMC8301214
OpenAlex: W3035132964
Semantic Scholar: 8c83ed33a7ceb30dd6f9b8b6c302707286e34cd3
Cited by: 136
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 1
FWCI: 7.46
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Black Studies (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R25MH087217)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
Keywords: child suicide, Black children, interpersonal theory of suicide, intersectionality, suicide prevention, racial discrimination, socioeconomic status, sexual and gender minority youth, mental health, culturally sensitive interventions, suicide risk factors

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Suicide among Black Children: An Integrated Model of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality Theory for Researchers and Clinicians

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