Platform labour in contexts of high informality: Any improvement for workers? A critical assessment based on the case of Argentina
Open accessAbstract
Abstract The article analyses the effects of digital labour platforms in a context characterised by high informality, exploring the way platforms may or may not imply a disruption in this respect. To do so, it examines the labour transitions that lead to platform labour, taking into account the formal status of workers before and after joining platforms, as well as their evaluation of resulting labour conditions. The article relies on a quantitative survey and in depth interviews for three on‐demand occupations in the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area, ride‐hailing, home repairs and domestic service. Results show that a platform's influence on the formal status of workers (and their assessment of it) is highly contingent upon: the platform's business model, including the legal status that may be used to integrate the workforce, the pre‐existing formal/informal dynamics within the occupation and the general labour market situation.
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Claims the paper makes
1 of 25 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
Half of these precarisation individuals were formal wageworkers who entered as formal independent workers, experiencing relative limitations in access to social security.
“Half of these individuals were formal wageworkers who entered the platform as formal independent workers (thus experiencing relative limitations in terms of access to social security in contrast to their recent past).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Half of transitions behind the 'continuity effect' in HomeSolution consists of workers who were informal before joining and remain informal.
“In line with this appreciation, half of transitions behind the prevalent 'continuity effect' consists of workers who were informal before joining the platform and remain as such within it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The other half of the 'continuity effect' is explained by formal independent workers who had registered before joining and continued.
“At the same time, the other half of this 'continuity effect' is explained by formal independent workers who had registered as such before joining the platform and continued in that situation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
These formal independent continuity workers correspond to relatively better-positioned workers of the home repair sector who generally have some institutional clients requiring invoices.
“In-depth interviews reveal that these trajectories correspond to relatively betterpositioned workers of the home repair sector who generally have some institutional clients who require invoices.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A platform's influence on the formal status of workers (and their assessment of it) is highly contingent upon the platform's business model (including the legal status used to integrate the workforce), the pre-existing formal/informal dynamics within the occupation, and the general labour market situation.
“Results show that a platform's influence on the formal status of workers (and their assessment of it) is highly contingent upon: the platform's business model, including the legal status that may be used to integrate the workforce, the pre-existing formal/informal dynamics within the occupation and the general labour market situation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Before unemployment, many of these formalised HomeSolution workers exhibit a long-term trajectory of formal waged labour, mostly in maintenance tasks.
“Before unemployment, many of them exhibit a long-term trajectory of formal waged labour (in the case of HomeSolution, once again, mostly in occupations related to maintenance tasks in different types of productive establishments).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In most cases, the previous formal salaried jobs of HomeSolution precarisation workers were related to maintenance tasks in different companies.
“Qualitative data indicates that, in most cases, the previous formal salaried jobs were related to maintenance tasks in different companies, implying that these workers had a know-how that was used on the platform.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The remaining half are employees who entered as informal providers, experiencing a total loss in social protection.
“The remaining half are employees who have entered the platform as informal providers (experiencing a total loss in terms of social protection).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The significant share of formerly unemployed individuals was a distinctive characteristic of platforms' labour force in Argentina at the time data was collected.
“In this sense, the significant share of formerly unemployed individuals was a distinctive characteristic of platforms' labour force in Argentina at the time data was collected.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In HomeSolution, the share of workers who experience precarisation is almost one-third of transitions.
“According to Figure 2, in this particular platform, the share of workers who experience precarisation is not negligible (it represents almost one-third of transitions).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The majority of Uber precarisation transitions are triggered by the loss of a formal salaried job in the context of the economic recession.
“As in-depth interviews reveal, the majority of these transitions to the platform are triggered by the loss of a formal salaried job in the context of the economic recession.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The economic recession began by the end of 2018 and severely worsened during the pandemic.
- Findingown data
Qualitative data reveals that the majority of unemployed individuals who joined Uber had no previous experience in this occupation.
“Qualitative data reveals that the majority of unemployed individuals who joined Uber had no previous experience in this occupation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the case of Uber, the share of those who experience precarisation is a minority but still significant (one fifth of surveyed drivers).
“Going back to the results of Figure 2, in the case of Uber, the share of those who experience precarisation, although a minority, is still significant (it represents one fifth of surveyed drivers).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Uber is the platform entailing the highest share of transitions to formal labour (62%).
“According to Figure 2, Uber is the platform entailing the highest share of transitions to formal labour (62%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
More than two-thirds of formalised Uber workers were unemployed before joining the platform.
“This requirement is accompanied by the fact that more than two-thirds among these formalised workers were unemployed before joining the platform.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The majority (two-thirds) of continuity transitions are from unemployment or informal job positions in the sector to informal salaried positions obtained through the platform.
“The majority (two-thirds) of transitions either are from unemployment or informal job positions in the sector to informal salaried positions obtained through the platform.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Another important factor influencing this formalisation effect is the company's intense promotion of labour regulations among employers and employees.
“Another important factor influencing this formalisation effect is the company's intense promotion of labour regulations among both employers and employees, through a multiplicity of communication channels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Most interviewees of this type account for previous precarious job positions, marked by long hours and low wages.
“Most interviewees of this type account for previous precarious job positions, marked by long hours and low wages (as informal waiters, receptionists, shop-vendors, among others).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In both Uber and HomeSolution, the majority of formalisation transitions happen to individuals who were unemployed immediately before joining.
“In both platforms, the majority of these transitions happen to individuals who were unemployed immediately before joining this new type of labour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Workers' labour transitions towards formalisation in Zolvers comprise 46% of workers.
“Workers' labour transitions towards formalisation comprise a significant share of movements (46% of workers).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Most of the transitions to formalisation in Zolvers (63%) are represented by unemployed workers who access a registered job through the platform.
“If the previous labour situation is taken into account, most of the transitions to formalisation (63%) are represented by unemployed workers who access a registered job through the platform.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The evaluations of Zolvers' workers who experience formalisation are fundamentally different from the perceptions of drivers and repairers.
“Interestingly, the evaluations of Zolvers' workers who experience formalisation through the platform are fundamentally different from the perceptions of drivers and repairers described above.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Behind the transition to formalisation there are unemployed people with a history of formal wage labour.
“This is because, in spite of a series of economic crises, behind this transition to formalisation there are unemployed people with a history of formal wage labour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Restrictions for accessing quality health services are a common concern among elder workers.
“Furthermore, restrictions for accessing quality health services are also a common concern among elder workers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Becoming a formal independent worker cannot acquire a positive significance.
“A careful examination of workers' labour history through in-depth interviews reveals that, becoming a formal independent worker cannot acquire a positive significance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
The vast majority of women under study laboured in the domestic service sector before joining Zolvers.
“In line with a low mobility across occupations observed for domestic workers in the country (Tizziani, 2011), the vast majority of women under study laboured in this same sector before joining the platform.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tizziani, 2011
- Findingreasoning
In the case analysed, the significant rate of unemployment at the time of fieldwork inflated transitions towards formality.
“In the case analysed here, the significant rate of unemployment registered at the moment of the fieldwork-resulting from a relatively long period of economic recession-acts to inflate transitions towards formality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The significant rate of unemployment registered at the moment of the fieldwork resulted from a relatively long period of economic recession.
- Findingown data
Many of these unemployed have a past trajectory of formal salaried jobs.
“However, in-depth interviews reveal that many of these unemployed have a past trajectory of formal salaried jobs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
When workers join platforms as formal self-employed after unemployment preceded by formal salaried jobs, there is a widespread perception of weakened social protection coverage.
“Consequently, even when workers may join platforms as formal selfemployed, when they come from situations of unemployment preceded by formal salaried jobs, there is a widespread perception of weakened social protection coverage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Unlike Uber or HomeSolution, most unemployed workers who join Zolvers come from an informal labour trajectory in the same sector, characterised by high rotation rates and frequent unemployment/inactivity periods.
“Unlike the more heterogeneous backgrounds of formerly unemployed workers in the cases of Uber or HomeSolution, most unemployed workers who join Zolvers come from an informal labour trajectory in this same sector, characterised by high rotation rates and frequent unemployment/inactivity periods.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Within transitions towards formalisation in Zolvers, movements from informal salaried positions to formal ones represent 32% of these switches.
“In addition, within these transitions towards formalisation, movements from informal salaried positions (the majority within the domestic service sector) to formal ones are also important, representing 32% of these switches.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
For workers living on a day-to-day basis and having experienced mostly informal employment trajectories, what tends to prevail is the positive valuation of their new formal status.
“Indeed, for workers living on a day-to-day basis and having experienced mostly informal employment trajectories, what tends to prevail is the positive valuation of their new formal status.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among workers who come from a past of informal salaried jobs, their incorporation to the platform as formal independent workers is perceived as an improvement.
“On the other hand, among workers who come from a past of informal salaried jobs-which may or may not be mediated by a period of unemployment before joining the platform-their incorporation to the platform as formal independent workers is indeed perceived as an improvement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
In the context of a sector with significant levels of informality, workers tend to positively value many aspects of achieving the status of formal salaried employees.
“In the context of a sector with significant levels of informality, workers tend to positively value many aspects of achieving the status of formal salaried employees.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
According to the survey, only 40% of all independent workers in these two platforms access healthcare through the monotributo scheme.
“According to the survey, only 40% of all independent workers in these two platforms access healthcare through the monotributo scheme.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The platform is often praised by workers as a good alternative to generate income in such situations.
“Thus, the platform is often praised by workers as a good alternative to generate income in such situations, because 'it is easier to get a job through Zolvers'.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Workers' evaluation of their new employment status tends to converge around the idea that the flexible schedule is the only positive thing.
“In these cases, workers' evaluation of their new employment status tends to strongly converge around the idea that the flexible schedule 'is the only positive thing.'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Around 75% of all domestic workers in Argentina are not registered with the social security scheme by employers.
“According to Argentina's Permanent Household Survey 2019 (Q4), around 75% of all domestic workers in the country are not registered with the social security scheme by employers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Argentina's Permanent Household Survey 2019 (Q4)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
Independent workers under the monotributo scheme are deprived of important labour benefits that salaried workers enjoy, such as paid holidays, an annual bonus, or compensation in front of contract termination.
“As it usually happens with independent labour schemes, these workers are deprived from important labour benefits that salaried workers do enjoy, such as paid holidays, an annual bonus (an yearly extra salary, half paid in July and the other half in December), or a compensation in front of contract termination.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The lack of self-registration requirement in HomeSolution is closely associated to the dynamics of the occupation in its traditional version, where informality prevails.
“As explained previously, the company does not require or promote workers' self-registration as formal independent providers and this is closely associated to the dynamics of the occupation in its traditional version, where informality prevails.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: HomeSolution does not require or promote workers' self-registration as formal independent providers.
- Premisereasoning
HomeSolution's sign-up requirements do not include showing proof of formal registration as independent workers through the monotributo.
“It is important to note that these requirements do not include showing proof of their formal registration as independent workers through the monotributo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The formalisation transition often represents a setback from the point of view of these individuals.
“Paradoxically, and as will be further explored in the next section, the formalisation transition often represents a setback from the point of view of these individuals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The home repairs occupation is traditionally organised within the informal economy.
“This is because, even though some clients may occasionally request formal invoices (and thus they may need services from the few formal workers of the sector), the occupation is traditionally organised within the informal economy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foro de Análisis Económico de la Construcción, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisenone given
Uber stipulates that all its drivers have to be formally registered as independent workers through the monotributo scheme.
“Instead, the platform stipulates that all its drivers have to be formally registered as independent workers through the monotributo scheme (a requirement that tends to be met with few exceptions 3 ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Nearly 70% of independent providers in home repairs are non-registered with social security.
“Although there is no official data available, estimations indicate that nearly 70% of independent providers are non-registered with social security (Foro de Análisis Económico de la Construcción, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foro de Análisis Económico de la Construcción, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Uber's requirement of self-registration might be read as part of a partial strategy to gradually adjust some features of the irregularity of the company with respect to the ride-hailing sector.
“Hence, Uber's requirement of self-registration for workers might be read as part of a-still partial and undoubtedly incomplete-strategy to gradually adjust some features of the irregularity of the company with respect to the ride-hailing sector in the country.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Uber requires drivers to self-register formally as independent workers for social security purposes.
- Interpretationreasoning
It is reasonable to expect that employers using Zolvers Pagos are significantly more prone to formalise their domestic workers.
“As this leaves a digital trace of the existence of a labour relationship, it is reasonable to expect that these employers are significantly more prone to formalise their domestic workers (via the platform or by their own means).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Highly informal contexts may deter companies from requesting workers' registration with social security because it may collide with sector practices, as in HomeSolutions.
“In this sense, highly informal contexts may deter companies to request workers registration with social security because it may collide with practices of the sector, as in the case of HomeSolutions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For certain occupations and under certain business models, platforms can generate some positive results.
“Indeed, for certain occupations and under certain business models, platforms can generate some positive results.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Zolvers seems to have some potential to formalise contracts in an occupation marked by pervasive casual labour.
“Therefore, Zolvers seems to have some potential to formalise contracts in an occupation marked by pervasive casual labour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The domestic service sector platform analysed here generates positive results.
“This seems to be the case in the domestic service sector platform analysed here.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In the context of Argentina, platforms ultimately tend to precarise labour (excluding the domestic service platform).
“However, leaving aside the particular example of the domestic service platform, the results are in line with the literature suggesting that, in the context of Argentina, platforms ultimately tend to precarise labour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Considering the universe of platforms under study, the formalisation effect achieved via Zolvers suggests the most clear and unequivocal increasing effects.
“As it will be discussed later, considering the universe of platforms under study, the formalisation effect achieved via this platform suggest the most clear and unequivocal increasing effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This kind of formalisation transition is experienced as a setback for workers within a wider perspective that takes into account their lifetime labour histories.
“Therefore, it is unsurprising that this kind of formalisation transition is, in the facts, experienced as a setback for workers within a wider perspective that takes into account their lifetime labour histories.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Formalisation efforts of platforms like Zolvers may be hindered significantly by deeply rooted informal practices in the sector.
“As an example, formalisation efforts of platforms like Zolvers may be hindered at a significant degree by deeply rooted informal practices in the sector.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Platforms' formalisation policies are heavily influenced by pre-existing formal/informal dynamics within the occupation in its traditional version.
“Platforms' formalisation policies (or their absence) are also heavily influenced by pre-existing formal/informal dynamics within the occupation in its traditional version.”
- Also stated in: § FINAL CONSIDERATIONS · plain
“Moreover, the specific platform's result in terms of fomalisation is also influenced by the preexisting formal/informal practices of each occupation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § FINAL CONSIDERATIONS · plain
- Interpretationreasoning
The need to relativise the formalisation effect is especially the case when formalisation occurs through formal self-employment and affects formerly unemployed individuals.
“This is especially the case when such formalisation occurs through formal self-employment and it affects formerly unemployed individuals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Depending on their business design, platforms may find it profitable, politically opportune, irrelevant, or inconvenient to promote formalisation of workers.
“According to their business design, platforms may find profitable, politically opportune, irrelevant or even inconvenient to promote the formalisation of workers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Each company's business model is a variable influencing platforms' formalisation results.
“Unquestionably, each company's business model constitutes a first variable in this respect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Labour platforms' influence on the formal status of workers is highly variable and dependent on at least three factors.
“the first observation is that labour platforms' influence on the formal status of workers is highly variable and dependent on at least three factors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: There are existing limitations in formality definition and measurement.
- Interpretationreasoning
Conventional methods of measuring formality may lead to misleading conclusions about the effects of platforms if not well contextualised.
“Moreover, the results suggest that conventional methods of measuring formality may lead to somewhat misleading conclusions about the effects of platforms, if not well contextualised in their assessment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The association between uberisation of labour and significant precarisation should not be interpreted as a linear nor uniform trend.
“The third observation highlights that, without denying that the uberisation of labour tends to imply significant precarisation, this association should not be interpreted as a linear nor uniform trend.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The uberisation of labour tends to imply significant precarisation.
- Interpretationreasoning
General labour market conditions influence platforms' results in terms of formalisation.
“Lastly, the general labour market conditions also influence platforms' results in terms of formalisation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 30
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSuccessful practices include selling services associated with formalisation of contracts (like Zolvers), hiring waged workers directly dependent on the platform, or workers managing platforms as cooperatives.
“Successful practices include selling services associated to the formalisation of contracts (like Zolvers in this article), or hiring waged workers directly dependant on the platform, or via workers managing platforms in the form of cooperatives (see Azzellini et al., 2022;Blanchard, 2023;Cannon et al., 2020;DFS, 2021;Kasparian et al., 2021, among others).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Azzellini et al., 2022 source
- cites Blanchard, 2023 source
The paper’s “Formalización” section describes ZolversPagos as a paid service that registers workers and handles payments and taxes for clients. “Conclusiones y recomendaciones” says Hogaru directly employs its domestic workers. The copy does not describe worker-managed platform cooperatives; its mention of a cooperative in “Éxito de la plataforma” concerns a loan inquiry, not platform ownership. Page numbers are unavailable in the indexed copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Cannon et al., 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe switch to the platform usually took place in the context of staff reduction policies or labour conditions' deterioration due to the economic recession.
“The switch to the platform usually took place in the context of staff reduction policies or labour conditions' deterioration due to the economic recession, as these testimonies illustrate:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The economic recession began by the end of 2018 and severely worsened during the pandemic.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThese informal continuity workers tend to have low qualifications and income, and were already working in the home-repair sector.
“These workers tend to have low qualifications and income, and the qualitative data indicates that they were already working in the home-repair sector (as bricklayers, house painters, blacksmiths, and so on).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe small proportion of workers who experience formalisation in HomeSolution is similar to Uber: most come from unemployment and enter as formal independent providers.
“When it comes to the small proportion of workers who experience formalisation in HomeSolution, the situation observed is similar to that observed in Uber.This is because most workers involved come from unemployment and enter the platform as formal independent providers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe very small share of Uber workers who experience continuity (15%) is almost exclusively associated to former formal independent workers.
“Finally, the very small share of Uber workers who experience continuity (15%) is almost exclusively associated to former formal independent workers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataHomeSolution is the most neutral platform regarding transitions that alter the formal status of workers; almost half of the sample (48%) experiences continuity.
“Regarding the results for HomeSolution, as can be observed in Figure 2, this is the most neutral platform regarding transitions that alter the formal status of workers.In this sense, almost half of the sample (48%) experiences continuity in terms of its formal status.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationAccording to Argentina's Household Permanent Survey 2019 (Q4), the share of short working hours' jobs represents 48% of the total domestic service's workforce, with a registration rate of only 10%.
“whereas according to the Argentina's Household Permanent Survey 2019 (Q4) data the share of this type of short working hours' jobs represents 48% of the total domestic service's workforce, with a registration rate of only 10%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Argentina's Household Permanent Survey 2019 (Q4)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningInterviewees regret the loss of income stability and benefits associated to formal salaried labour.
“In turn, interviewees regret the loss of income stability, as well as that of benefits associated to formal salaried labour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThis intervention of the company is perceived among workers as a useful tool to enforce employer awareness and increase chances of fair dispute resolution.
“This intervention of the company is perceived among workers as a useful tool to enforce employer awareness and increase the chances of a fair dispute resolution:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThese strategies for promoting formalisation do not reach all domestic workers in the platform; continuity transitions are at a rate of 46%.
“In any case, it becomes clear that these strategies for promoting formalisation do not reach all domestic workers in the platform.The pervasive informality of domestic service is reflected in the weight of continuity transitions at a rate of 46%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataConsidering workers' main occupation, 72% of Zolvers jobs only entail up to 16 weekly hours and their registration rate is 53%.
“Considering workers' main occupation, 72% of Zolvers jobs only entail up to 16 weekly hours and their registration rate is of 53%”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAs the levels of earnings and quality of social protection do not show significant variations, for these interviewees the dimension of 'freedom' is often highlighted to support a general positive view.
“As the levels of earnings and the quality of social protection do not show significant variations, for these interviewees the dimension of 'freedom' is often highlighted to support a general positive view of their labour transition:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn-depth interviews reveal access problems in terms of location or financial viability, including lack of geographic coverage and co-payments.
“Moreover, in-depth interviews reveal that there are access problems, both in terms of location or financial viability.For instance, many workers highlight the lack of adequate geographic coverage of many of these entities, whilst numerous medical services require co-payments from users that discourage their use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe most highlighted benefits include job stability, salary updates according to regulation, as well as annual bonuses and paid holidays received.
“The most highlighted benefits include job stability, salary updates according to regulation, as well as the annual bonuses and paid holidays received.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenEmployers' use of the Zolvers Pagos system covers slightly more than one-third of all Zolvers' job positions, and workers' transition towards formalisation represents 60% of all movements.
“In this sense, one of the most significant variables affecting formalisation transitions in this platform is employers' use of the Zolvers Pagos system, which covers slightly more than one-third of all Zolvers' job positions, and whose workers' transition towards formalisation represents 60% of all movements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningMost of these workers under the monotributo scheme either opt for the free public health system or pay out of their pockets for private services or insurances.
“This explains why, in the facts, most of these workers under the monotributo scheme either opt for the free (albeit financially deteriorated) public health system or, if their income allows it, pay out of their pockets for private services or insurances.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere are dissimilar perceptions among interviewees regarding the low-income level of future retirement allowance; young workers are often not immediately concerned, while older workers with previous formal salaried experience have concerns.
“In terms of the low-income level of future retirement allowance that the independent workers' scheme provides, there are dissimilar perceptions among interviewees.Among young workers, this is often not an immediate concern.However, for those who are olderparticularly if they had previous formal salaried experience-there are concerns about their future retirement pensions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere are also cases of precarisation in Zolvers, represented by workers who lost a formal salaried job in the sector and obtained an informal one through the platform, constituting a minority (8%).
“Related to these limitations, there are also cases of precarisation, represented by workers who lost a formal salaried job in the sector and obtained an informal one through the platform, although these cases constitute a minority (8%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAt the moment of the fieldwork, the unemployment rate represented around 11% of the workforce.
“This context aggravated with the Covid-19 pandemic and facilitated the recruitment of workers, as it not only worsened the labour conditions of informal workers but also the unemployment rate rose significantly-at the moment of the fieldwork it represented around 11% of the workforce (INDEC, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites INDEC, 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone givenLabour platforms in Argentina tend to rely predominantly on the monotributo legal status.
“The panorama in terms of the formalisation policies applied to independent workers is important, because, as happens in many other contexts, labour platforms in Argentina tend to rely predominantly (but not exclusively as will be shown later on) on this legal status and therefore many of its pitfalls emerge throughout the analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenQuantitative data generally does not indicate the exact occupation/sector individuals come from, except for domestic workers questionnaire.
“even though quantitative data allows the analysis of the potential changes in the formal status of workers, it generally does not indicate the exact occupation/sector individuals come from (with the exception of the domestic workers questionnaire, including a question on past domestic work).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe characteristics of the traditional taxi occupation might be a factor influencing Uber's decision to require self-registration.
“The characteristics of the traditional version of the occupation might be a factor influencing the decision of the platform to require to their so called 'partner drivers' to (at least) register formally as self-employed workers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Uber requires drivers to self-register formally as independent workers for social security purposes.
- Rests on an assumption: The taxi sector in Argentina is highly regulated with a relatively strong level of organisation and unionisation.
- Rests on an assumption: The main taxi drivers union represents those who do not own the vehicles and are typified as salaried workers.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe monotributo scheme unifies in a single monthly payment very low and heavily subsidised contributions for a future retirement pension and for health insurance coverage.
“This integrated regime unifies in a single monthly payment (charged to the worker) very low-and yet heavily subsidised-contributions for a future retirement pension and for health insurance coverage (Cetrángolo et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cetrángolo et al., 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningZolvers offers an optional service (Zolvers Pagos) that allows employers to disengage from salary payment procedures and offers technical support to formalise the worker, and actively disseminates information on labour regulations to employers and domestic workers.
“Therefore, this latter facility is accompanied by the platforms' active dissemination of information on labour regulations in both directions-employers and domestic workers-through its various communication channels (website, Instagram, Facebook and e-mails).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe platform seems to facilitate a way out of unemployment for taxi drivers, as the recruiting process is impersonal and requirements are simpler than traditional taxi occupation.
“If in Argentina driving a taxi is not an infrequent alternative after losing a job, the platform seems to facilitate this way out of unemployment.The recruiting process is impersonal and requirements are relatively simpler than those of the traditional version of the occupation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenShort-hours job offers tend to prevail on Zolvers, with workers having on average three different jobs through the platform.
“Another important feature of this platform is that short-hours job offers tend to prevail (workers have on average three different jobs through the platform).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationZolvers is the only platform under study that places its workers in salaried positions, as Argentinean legislation considers all domestic workers as wageworkers, regardless of their monthly workload.
“It is important to remark again that this is the only platform under study that places its workers in (usually long-term) salaried positions, as the Argentinean legislation considers all domestic workers as wageworkers, regardless of their monthly workload.5”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Law No. 26.844
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningZolvers and HomeSolution workers were selected randomly based on a list of workers provided by the companies, because they are hidden populations.
“Zolvers and HomeSolution workers could be catalogued as hidden populations (as they do not interact in social networks' groups).Therefore, the selection of cases for these platforms was carried out randomly based on a list of workers provided by the companies themselves.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenUber workers were initially randomly contacted through social network groups, then snowball sampling was applied with a maximum of three contacts per person to avoid biases.
“Uber workers were initially randomly contacted through social network groups where they frequently interact.Later, the snowball sampling method was applied, but restricting to three the maximum contacts provided per person to avoid biases.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationUber does not own any vehicle of its own nor does it directly hire drivers.
“Its business model is based, firstly, on the fact that it does not own any vehicle of its own nor does it directly hire drivers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rosenblat & Stark, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Covid-19 pandemic worsened the labour conditions of informal workers and raised the unemployment rate.
“This context aggravated with the Covid-19 pandemic and facilitated the recruitment of workers, as it not only worsened the labour conditions of informal workers but also the unemployment rate rose significantly-at the moment of the fieldwork it represented around 11% of the workforce (INDEC, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites INDEC, 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationShort-hours jobs have proven to be the more resilient to formalisation policies in the domestic service sector.
“Such context is challenging for the company since this type of jobs has proven to be the more resilient to formalisation policies in the sector (Pereyra, 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pereyra, 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationInformal workers represent systematically an average of 35% of the Argentine workforce over the last two decades.
“For the last two decades, estimations based on nationally representative household surveys indicate that informal workers represent systematically an average of 35% of the workforce (Albertini et al., 2020;Alvarez et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Albertini et al., 2020 source
- cites Alvarez et al., 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe lack of insurances in front of occupational accidents or unemployment is an important shortcoming of the current regime for independent workers in Argentina.
“For example, the lack of insurances in front of occupational accidents or unemployment has been pointed out as an important shortcoming of the current regime (Marzi & Hintze, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Marzi & Hintze, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe legal status of Uber remains in a grey area in most of the national territory, with final definitions still pending.
“As a result the legal status of the platform, subject to constant rulings and appeals, remains in a grey area in most of the national territory, being final definitions still a pending issue (Clarin, 2020;El Economista, 2019;IProfesional, 2020;La Nación, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Clarin, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites El Economista, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites IProfesional, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenZolvers provides an intermediary service for hiring domestic workers as employees.
“Born in 2014, this platform provides an intermediary service for hiring domestic workers as employees.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLabour platforms' entry to the local market accelerated towards the end of the last decade, coinciding with a severe economic recession with strong negative effects on labour indicators.
“Labour platforms' entry to the local market accelerated towards the end of the last decade, coinciding with a severe economic recession with strong negative effects on labour indicators (INDEC, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites INDEC, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningOnly the main occupation obtained through Zolvers (in terms of weekly hours) is considered to enable comparability.
“Domestic workers usually have more than one job, so to enable comparability, only the main occupation obtained through the platform (in terms of the amount of weekly hours worked) is considered in the analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe literature tends to converge around the notion that platform labour has implied significant precarisation across the world of work.
“The literature tends to converge around the notion that platform labour has implied significant precarisation across the world of work (De Stefano et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites De Stefano et al., 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningIn highly regulated occupations, companies may need to promote some degree of formalisation to make their operations more accountable, as in Uber.
“In highly regulated occupations, companies may need to promote some degree of formalisation to make their operations more accountable, as in the highly contentious and legally unresolved case of Uber.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenIn very specific cases, platforms might provide examples of good practice.
“It also acknowledges that in very specific cases, platforms might provide examples of good practice, which indeed should be considered for replication in and outside the platform domain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThis is mainly because the platform places workers in waged labour relationships, so formality implies full coverage in terms of social protection associated to salaried work.
“This mainly has to do with the fact that the platform places workers in waged labour relationships.Therefore, formality that can be achieved in this context implies the full coverage in terms of social protection associated to salaried work.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Formalisation within the domestic service sector in Argentina only admits the figure of the waged worker.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe formalisation effect achieved through Zolvers becomes more significant as it impacts short-hours jobs, which is the type of insertion in the sector that has been more resilient to formalisation policies.
“It is also important to note that the formalisation effect achieved through Zolvers becomes more significant as it impacts shorthours jobs, which is precisely the type of insertion in the sector that has been more resilient to formalisation policies implemented in the country.8”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenA lack of intervention could be replicating the informal practices of the trade, as found for HomeSolutions.
“Similarly, a lack of intervention could be replicating the informal practices of the trade, as found for HomeSolutions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPlatforms' business models are heterogeneous and many have been assessed as beneficial to workers.
“Although many studies on digital platforms for domestic services have found the deepening of the precarious labour conditions of the activity (Modroño et al., 2022;Sedacca, 2022;Wandile & du Toit, 2022), platforms' business models are heterogeneous and many have been assessed as beneficial to workers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Modroño et al., 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Sedacca, 2022 source
- cites Wandile & du Toit, 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
Uber requires drivers to self-register formally as independent workers for social security purposes.
“the company requires drivers to self-register formally as independent workers for social security purposes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
HomeSolution does not require or promote workers' self-registration as formal independent providers.
“the company does not require or promote workers' self-registration as formal independent providers”
The paper relies on this without support.
The company offers employers the service of taking care of bureaucratic procedures for formalising workers and assumes responsibility for monthly social security contributions via Zolvers Pagos.
“the company offers employers the service of taking care of all the bureaucratic procedures that involve formalising workers, as well as of assuming the responsibility of making monthly social security contributions via the Zolvers Pagos system”
The paper relies on this without support.
Even when the company promotes formalisation, it assumes no responsibility for the final nature of the contract resulting from its intermediation.
“even when the company promotes formalisation, it assumes no responsibility for final nature of the contract resulting from its intermediation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The monotributo scheme does not contemplate coverage for occupational accidents or access to unemployment insurance.
“the monotributo scheme does not contemplate coverage in from of occupational accidents or access to unemployment insurance.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Compared with formal salaried workers, monotributistas do not have paid holidays nor receive annual bonuses, and the scheme entails lower levels of contributions for future retirement allowance and health coverage, which come out of workers' pockets.
“When compared with formal salaried workers, the monotributistas do not have paid holidays nor receive annual bonuses, and the scheme entails lower levels of contributions for future retirement allowance and health coverage (contributions which, additionally, come out of workers pockets).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Formalisation within the domestic service sector in Argentina only admits the figure of the waged worker.
“formalisation within the domestic service sector in Argentina only admits the figure of the waged worker.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The economic recession began by the end of 2018 and severely worsened during the pandemic.
“these shifts took place in the context of an economic recession, which unleashed by the end of 2018 and severely worsened during the pandemic.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The taxi sector in Argentina is highly regulated with a relatively strong level of organisation and unionisation.
“the company operates in the context a highly regulated sector with a relatively strong level of organisation and unionisation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The main taxi drivers union represents those who do not own the vehicles and are typified as salaried workers.
“The main taxi drivers union represents those who do not own the vehicles (they pay a daily commission to car owners based on their earnings) and therefore are typified as salaried workers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are existing limitations in formality definition and measurement.
“Leaving aside the existing limitations in formality definition and measurement”
The paper relies on this without support.
The significant rate of unemployment registered at the moment of the fieldwork resulted from a relatively long period of economic recession.
“the significant rate of unemployment registered at the moment of the fieldwork-resulting from a relatively long period of economic recession”
The paper relies on this without support.
The uberisation of labour tends to imply significant precarisation.
“without denying that the uberisation of labour tends to imply significant precarisation”
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Sorted by citations
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“For instance, Filipetto et al. (2024), studied in Argentina how, in socio-economic contexts with high levels of informality, the impact of digital platforms on employment is ambiguous and does not demonstrate a particularly disruptive character.”
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“In certain developing contexts, platforms have been shown to contribute to improving working conditions by formalising otherwise invisible service work (Filipetto et al., 2023; Raval and Pal, 2019).”
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“Beyond fruitful discussions of platforms' for-malising potential (Filipetto et al. 2023; Mendonça et al. 2023), we need to examine how these technologies might function as organising forces in contexts of urban violence.”
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“Existing research shows that the introduction of platform labour in the Global South has not fundamentally altered ‘ informal work ’ practices; rather it has given rise to a new form of informality driven by the lack of regulatory oversight of digital labour platforms (Filipetto et al., 2024).”
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- Authors
- Filipetto, S., Micha, A., Pereyra, F., Poggi, C., & Trombetta, M.
- Affiliations
- National University of General Sarmiento (AR)
- Agence française de développement (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Filipetto, Sonia
- Venue
- New Technology, Work and Employment
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2023-11-30
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 259-280
- ISSN
- 0268-1072 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-005X
- OpenAlex
- W4389244787
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 4
- FWCI
- 7.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- New Technology Work and Employment (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Economy and Work Transformation
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Sharing Economy and Platforms
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Taxation and Compliance Studies
- Keywords
- platform work, informal employment, online labour platforms, on-demand work, ride-hailing, home repair services, domestic work, platform business models
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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