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Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes
Open accessAbstract
Adolescent, female, and masters athletes have unique nutritional requirements as a consequence of undertaking daily training and competition in addition to the specific demands of age- and gender-related physiological changes. Dietary education and recommendations for these special population athletes require a focus on eating for long-term health, with special consideration given to “at-risk” dietary patterns and nutrients (e.g., sustained restricted eating, low calcium, vitamin D and/or iron intakes relative to requirements). Recent research highlighting strategies to address age-related changes in protein metabolism and the development of tools to assist in the management of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport are of particular relevance to special population athletes. Whenever possible, special population athletes should be encouraged to meet their nutrient needs by the consumption of whole foods rather than supplements. The recommendation of dietary supplements (particularly to young athletes) overemphasizes their ability to manipulate performance in comparison with other training/dietary strategies.
Overview
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TL;DR
Adolescent, female, and masters athletes have distinct nutritional requirements shaped by growth, reproductive hormones, and aging. The review emphasizes adequate energy availability, whole-food-based intake, protein distribution, and the need for more female- and masters-specific research.
Key findings
- Adolescent athletes: group energy expenditure estimates are ~3,640 ± 830 kcal/day for males and ~3,100 ± 720 kcal/day for females; low energy availability is common and may lead to delayed puberty, menstrual irregularities, poor bone health, short stature, disordered eating, and increased injury risk. Protein intake of ~0.11 g·kg⁻¹·hr⁻¹ postexercise or ~1.5 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ may suffice if energy needs are met.
- Masters athletes: aging brings sarcopenia and anabolic resistance; protein recommendations for strength/power gains are ≥1.2 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹, with a daily target of ~1.5–1.6 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ and ~0.4 g/kg high-quality protein per meal. Male endurance athletes require 1.6–1.8 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹, with young women requiring ~25% lower intakes due to estrogen-mediated decreases in amino acid oxidation; carbohydrate loading may work if >8.0 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ is consumed.
- Female athletes: low energy availability is particularly risky due to reproductive hormone effects; menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptives influence substrate metabolism, and luteal-phase fluid retention may increase body weight by 2–2.5 kg. Pregnancy energy needs increase by 150, 200, and 300 kcal/day in underweight women and 0, 350, and 500 kcal/day in normal-weight women across trimesters.
- General guidance: special-population athletes should meet nutrient needs through whole foods rather than supplements when possible, especially young athletes; RED-S management tools and age-related protein strategies are highlighted as relevant.
Methods
- Not stated in the paper; no systematic review design, dataset, sample, or main analysis is described. The article presents a discussion of cited literature.
Limitations
- Stated: individual energy requirements of adolescent athletes are difficult to define precisely due to metabolic variability and methodological difficulties in estimating intake and expenditure; no evidence determines whether fluid intake modulates heat illness risk in adolescent athletes; no study has specifically evaluated protein requirements in older (>65 years) masters athletes; female-specific nutrition research is limited, and much substrate metabolism/menstrual cycle/oral contraceptive research is ~20 years old, conflicting, and methodologically inconsistent.
- Evident: the paper is a narrative overview without systematic methods, and it notes that the majority of sports-specific nutrition research is conducted in male athletes.
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In the paper
“Children and adolescents appear to rely more on peripheral blood redistribution (radiative and conductive cooling) rather than sweating (evaporative cooling) to maintain thermal equilibrium (Falk & Dotan, 2008).”
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Falk & Dotan, 2008 source
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“It has been reported that up to ∼30% of male athletes over age 50 years have some level of testosterone deficiency (Di Luigi et al., 2010)”
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Physiological Changes in Masters Athletes
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Di Luigi et al., 2010 source
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- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“Fluid shifts of this magnitude have the potential to effect exercise performance.”
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Nutritional Needs for Adolescent Athletes
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it is difficult to define the individual energy requirements of an adolescent athlete with precision due to metabolic variability within and between individuals (Petrie et al., 2004) and methodological difficulties in estimating both energy intake and energy expenditure (Burke et al., 2001).”
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Abstract
What the sources say
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In additional to enhancing the response to the stimulus of exercise training (Witard et al., 2018), adolescents have additional protein requirements to support general growth and development (Aerenhouts et al., 2011).”
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Aerenhouts et al., 2011 source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the citing paper
“In developing athletes, LEA may lead to a number of serious health consequences, including delayed puberty, menstrual irregularities, poor bone health, short stature, the development of disordered eating behaviours, and increased risk of injury [31].”
From Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition (2021) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Protein intake was below the recommended levels for masters athletes, except for female athletes involved in power events (i.e., sprinters and jumpers).”
From Dietary Intake of Athletes at the World Masters Athletics Championships as Assessed by Single 24 h Recall (2024) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“Fat and saturated fat intake were at acceptable levels, but omega-3 fatty acid intake was below the level recommended for masters athletes [2,3].”
From Dietary Intake of Athletes at the World Masters Athletics Championships as Assessed by Single 24 h Recall (2024) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“Increased energy demands from sport participation warrant the need for optimal nutrition intake to support athletic performance, improve recovery, reduce physical and mental fatigue, and reduce the risk of injury [2,10,11].”
From General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes (2025) · cites this paper as [10]
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In the paper
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Nutritional Needs for Female Athletes
“which could lead to a slightly lower protein requirement in female athletes who rely on oxidative metabolism for their discipline when this hormone is low and/or progesterone is high.”
§ Nutrition for Special Populations: Young, Female, and Masters Athletes > Nutritional Needs for Female Athletes
“estrogen has been shown to have a proteinsparing effect by reducing the reliance on amino acid oxidation”
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Şentürk, G., Yıldırım, Z., Deliceoğlu, G., & Yılmaz, S. (2025) · Gençlik Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.52528/genclikarastirmalari.1603750 · Cited by 1
Dietary habits and body composition in amateur rhythmic gymnastics
López, P. R., González-Devesa, D., González-Devesa, E., Prieto, J. P., Portas-Núñez, B., & Ayán, C. (2026) · Nutrición Hospitalaria · doi:10.20960/nh.05963 · Cited by 1
Overview of research and practice progress in body composition measurement techniques
Jing, W., Jing, W., Luo, S., Chen, Y., Guo, Q., & Yang, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Medical Technology · doi:10.3389/fmedt.2026.1789046 · Cited by 1
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Daliri, E. B., Ofosu, F. K., Oh, D., & Lee, B.-H. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100596-5.22892-8 · Cited by 1
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Tang, X. (2022) · Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte · doi:10.1590/1517-8692202228062022_0070 · Cited by 1
Relative energy deficiency in sport in the youth athlete
Kelly, R. K., & Ackerman, K. E. (2023) · The Youth Athlete · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99992-2.00019-0 · Cited by 1
Parks, R. B. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99992-2.00084-0 · Cited by 1
Os impactos do ciclo menstrual na performance de atletas eumenorréicas: Uma revisão narrativa
Ramalho, C. H. C. D. O., Carvalho, N., & Ferreira, P. A. (2023) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v12i13.44226 · Cited by 1
Abdulai, K., Hayford, F. E. A., Axame, W. K., Alhassan, A. R., & Brown, C. (2026) · African Journal of Sports and Physical Sciences · doi:10.62154/ajsps.2025.06.01012 · Cited by 1
Ernährungsperiodisierung im Sport
Hottenrott, K. (2020) · Zeitschrift für Komplementärmedizin · doi:10.1055/a-1081-8402
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Hottenrott, K., & Hottenrott, L. (2020) · Ernährung & Medizin · doi:10.1055/a-1113-2877
Nutritional strategies to optimize performance, training adaptation and recovery in team sports
(2021) · Swiss Sports & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.34045/sems/2021/3
Nutrition and eating disorders in youth sport
Mathisen, T. F., Sundgot‐Borgen, J., & Sundgot-Borgen, J. K. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780192843968.003.0051
Vegan Athletes: Special Considerations for the Vegan Athlete
Mendes, A. P., Pereira, F., & Teixeira, V. H. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33867-0_5
Barriers and Motivators of Young Dutch Elite Athletes for Optimizing Their Nutritional Intake
de Wit, M., & Geel, A. (2024) · Open Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.4236/ojpm.2024.147011
Park, C., Kim, K., Kim, C., & Kim, J. (2024) · The Asian Journal of Kinesiology · doi:10.15758/ajk.2024.26.4.48
Onell, C., Skillgate, E., Côté, P., Waldén, M., Källberg, H., Hägglund, M., Edlund, B., Melin, A., & Asker, M. (2025) · BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002332
Alimentation de l’enfant sportif
Duché, P., & Saidi, O. (2025) · EMC - Pédiatrie - Maladies infectieuses · doi:10.1016/s1637-5017(25)85072-5
Morris, D. J. (2021) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/22838984
Additional file 1 of Elite squash players nutrition knowledge and influencing factors
Turner, O., Mitchell, N., Ruddock, A. D., Purvis, A. J., & Ranchordas, M. K. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14767410
Blomqvist, M., & Unosson, S. (2023) · DiVA at Umeå University (Umeå University)
Os impactos do ciclo menstrual na performance de atletas eumenorréicas: uma revisão da literatura
Ramalho, C. C., de Carvalho, N. M. S., & Ferreira, P. A. (2024) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja)
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Ελευθεριάδου, Μ. Γ., & Ελευθεριάδου, Μ. Γ. (2025) · University of Thessaly Institutional Repository (University of Thessaly)
Visagie, R. (2024) · Open University of Cape Town (University of Cape Town)
Os Os impactos do ciclo menstrual na performance de atletas eumenorreicas: uma revisão da literatura
Ramalho, C. H. C. D. O., de Carvalho, N. M. S., & Ferreira, P. A. (2024) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
Developing Nutritional Considerations for Elite Squash Players Through a Performance Problems Lens
Turner, O. J. (2024) · Sheffield Hallam University · doi:10.7190/shu-thesis-00748
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Shkiryak, A., & Khanenko, S. (2026) · CyberLeninK (CyberLeninka) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.18451458
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Duché, P., & Saidi, O. (2026) · EMC - Pediatría · doi:10.1016/s1245-1789(25)51330-6
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Bagot, S. (2024) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/13a08bf4ze417z4cb4z80cfz47892200b6c8
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Nguyen, C., Allen, M. R., Hornburg, K., & Fredericson, M. (2026) · Current Sports Medicine Reports · doi:10.1249/jsr.0000000000001353
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Krutova, A. V., Мухортых, В. А., Kiseleva, T. A., & Zyabkin, I. V. (2026) · Extreme Medicine · doi:10.47183/mes.2026-500
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Adequacy of nutritional intakes of young professional cyclists during the competitive season
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Prospects for the Development of Pediatric Sports Nutrition
Рылова, Н. В. (2026) · A I Burnasyan Federal Medical Biophysical Center Clinical Bulletin · doi:10.33266/2782-6430-2026-3-24-29
Adolescent athletes’ and their parents’ eating behaviors and attitudes towards nutrition
Kantonen, V. (2024) · UEF eRepo (University of Eastern Finland)
Secondary school athletes’ perceptions of school dining
Lappi, H. (2024) · UEF eRepo (University of Eastern Finland)
Edukasi Mengenai Fakta - Mitos Makanan Dan Minuman Pada Atlet Basket Remaja
Ichsania, N. (2025) · MAMMIRI JURNAL PENGABDIAN MASYARAKAT
Bibliometric Analysis of Milk Protein Gene Expression Regulation Using CiteSpace and VOSviewer
He, X., Xing, L., Shi, L., & Zhou, X. (2026) · Molecular Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s12033-026-01609-7
Kadın Tenis Sporcularında Whey Protein Takviyesinin Bazı Performans Parametrelerine Etkisi
Kanik, G., Kargın, Z., Şar, H., & Mor, A. (2026) · Yalova Üniversitesi spor bilimleri dergisi. · doi:10.70007/yalovaspor.1913209
Metadata
- Authors
- Desbrow, B., Burd, N. A., Tarnopolsky, M., Moore, D. R., & Elliott-Sale, K. J.
- Affiliations
- Griffith University (AU)
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- McMaster University Medical Centre (CA)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- Venue
- International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism
- Publisher
- Human Kinetics
- Published
- 2019-03-01
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 220-227
- ISSN
- 1526-484X (ISSN-L)
- 1543-2742
- OpenAlex
- W2910331107
- Semantic Scholar
- d06b67315f98630fe5cfd8e7a884dd7bdb16b6a8
- Cited by
- 100
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 1.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- youth athletes, female athletes, masters athletes, nutrition education, energy deficiency, relative energy deficiency in sport, protein metabolism, calcium intake, vitamin D, iron intake, dietary supplements, whole foods, age-related physiological changes
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Diet, Female, Humans, Nutritional Requirements, Athletes, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-14, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-14 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
