Physiological Capacity and Training Routines of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Approaching the Upper Limits of Human Endurance
Open accessAbstract
Cross-country (XC) skiing is one of the most demanding of endurance sports, involving protracted competitions on varying terrain employing a variety of skiing techniques that require upper- and/or lower-body work to different extents. Through more effective training and extensive improvements in equipment and track preparation, the speed of cross-country ski races has increased more than that of any other winter Olympic sport, and, in addition, new types of racing events have been introduced. To a certain extent this has altered the optimal physiological capacity required to win, and the training routines of successful skiers have evolved accordingly. The long-standing tradition of researchers working closely with XC-ski coaches and athletes to monitor progress, improve training, and refine skiing techniques has provided unique physiological insights revealing how these athletes are approaching the upper limits of human endurance. This review summarizes current scientific knowledge concerning the demands involved in elite XC skiing, as well as the physiological capacity and training routines of the best athletes.
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Carbohydrate oxidation predominates at intensities >75% V̇O2max sustained in most competitive events, including cross-country skiing and biathlon.
“These characteristics highlight the critical role of carbohydrates in fueling repeated high‐intensity efforts, explaining the predominance of carbohydrate oxidation at the intensities (> 75% V̇O2max) sustained in most competitive events, including cross‐country skiing and biathlon [8, 9].”
From Carbohydrate Storage and Supplementation Strategies for Peak Performance in Cross-Country Skiing (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
The instantaneous contribution from anaerobic energy systems during climbs or the end-spurt may account for up to ~40% in sprint events and 10%-20% in longer distance races.
“In addition, the instantaneous contribution from anaerobic energy systems during climbs (followed by recovery on descents and drafting in mass starts) or during the end‐spurt may account for up to ~40% in sprint events and 10%–20% in longer distance races [9, 22].”
From Carbohydrate Storage and Supplementation Strategies for Peak Performance in Cross-Country Skiing (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
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BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSandbakk, Ø., Solli, G. S., & Holmberg, H.-C. (2018) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2017-0196 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
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BackgroundSelf-citationTønnessen, E., Sandbakk, Ø. B., Sandbakk, S. B., Seiler, S., & Haugen, T. A. (2024) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-024-02067-4 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
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Self-citationEleven years’ monitoring of the world’s most successful male biathlete of the last decade
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Self-citationLaboratory- and field-based performance-predictions in cross-country skiing and roller-skiing
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Pacing, Exercise Intensity, and Technique by Performance Level in Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiing
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“Athletic performance is one of the most complex human phenotypic traits influenced by anthropometric [30], psychological [35] and physiological properties[40], as well as by the training, nutrition and health status of the individual athlete [16].”
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BackgroundAssessment of Basic Motions and Technique Identification in Classical Cross-Country Skiing
Tjønnås, J., Seeberg, T. M., Rindal, O. M. H., Haugnes, P., & Sandbakk, Ø. B. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01260 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
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“Cross-country (XC) skiing is a demanding sport, where success requires high aerobic and anaerobic capacities, as well as the ability to produce high power and speed [1,2].”
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“, speed profiles across different terrains, pacing strategies and group dynamics) and their performance-determining impact can also differ considerably (2).”
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“The accumulation of high training volumes is a common factor among top senior, elite-level XC skiers [2, 3, 8, 36].”
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Self-citationIncreasing Oxygen Uptake in Cross-Country Skiers by Speed Variation in Work Intervals
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“(26) and demonstrated an average friction coefficient of 0.”
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“To provide a comprehensive understanding and detailed insight into the participant’s long-term development process, the study was divided into two parts: (1) a retrospective description of the participant’s long-term performance, physiological, and training characteristics across 17 seasons from the age 17 to 33 years…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialZoppirolli, C., Modena, R., Fornasiero, A., Bortolan, L., Skafidas, S., Savoldelli, A., Schena, F. F., & Pellegrini, B. (2020) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2020.00111 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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“Since high speed and strength capacities are vital for success in today ́s XC skiing [33], it is important that athletes have adequate energy and CHO availability to maintain muscular performance in key training sessions.”
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“Accordingly, successful XC skiing requires a high maximal oxygen uptake (VO2Max), as well as the ability to reach a high peak oxygen uptake (VO2Peak) and to ski efficiently within the different sub-techniques (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationБорисович, М. Е., Heil, D. P., Сергеевич, К. А., Feofilaktov, V., Кузмичев, В. А., & Валерьевич, А. Н. (2022) · Science & Sports · doi:10.1016/j.scispo.2021.09.004 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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“Karlsson et al. reported that 17–21 days of training at 1800 m increased elite XC-skiers and biathletes’ lactate threshold velocity [19].”
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“The typical training model among XC skiers includes 700–850 h per year of endurance training, distributed as 90% low (LIT), 4–5% as moderate (MIT), and 5–8% as high-intensity training (HIT) (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWehrlin, J. P., & Steiner, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2021.580486 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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“Such improvements in technique-specific propulsion have previously been associated with longer cycle lengths and better work economy/efficiency in XC skiers (Sandbakk et al., 2010; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTalsnes, R. K., van den Tillaar, R., Cai, X., & Sandbakk, Ø. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2020.00114 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“This ability is highly important as concurrent development in both efficiency and VO2max/peak is required for these athletes to reach the highest level in XC skiing (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMeixner, B. J., Filipas, L., Holmberg, H., & Sperlich, B. (2025) · Translational Sports Medicine · doi:10.1155/tsm2/2008291 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationIn a Heartbeat: Prospective Control of Cardiac Responses for Upcoming Action Demands during Biathlon
Benum, S. D., van der Weel, F. R., & van der Meer, A. L. H. (2021) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1080/10407413.2021.1885979 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In addition, the biathletes face diverse types of terrain, requiring them to regulate the external work rate and metabolic intensity according to the demands of the different types of terrain (Sandbakk & Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundUddin, M. Z., Seeberg, T. M., Kocbach, J., et al. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21196500 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationChoi, Y. C., Khuyagbaatar, B., Cheon, M., Batbayar, T., Lee, S., & Kim, Y. H. (2021) · International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing · doi:10.1007/s12541-021-00511-3 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The appropriate sub-techniques are also important and used to manage various terrain and snow conditions [6, 7].”
BackgroundBüchel, D., Torvik, P.-Ø., Lehmann, T., Sandbakk, Ø. B., & Baumeister, J. (2023) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000003122 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, J., Guan, H., Hostrup, M., ROWLANDS, D. S., González‐Alonso, J., & Jensen, J. (2021) · Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1007/s42978-021-00133-1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Duch, K., Michnik, A., Pokora, I., Sadowska‐Krępa, E., & Kiełboń, A. (2019) · Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry · doi:10.1007/s10973-019-08766-9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Shang, L., Sandbakk, Ø. B., Shi, R., Chen, X., & Talsnes, R. K. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811580 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“These findings agree with those found in the double-poling technique during a 10 km classical time-trial competition, demonstrating reduced CL throughout the competition [16], as well as more laboratory-based findings, emphasizing CL as an important performance determinant in the skating technique [1,2].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationKettunen, O., Mikkonen, R., Linnamo, V., Mursu, J., Kyröläinen, H., & Ihalainen, J. K. (2023) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1080/15502783.2023.2226639 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Additionally, while this study lacks assessment of competition performance, all performance parameters included are considered important for assessing XC skier development [15].”
BackgroundSandbakk, S. B., Tønnessen, E., Haugen, T. A., & Sandbakk, Ø. (2022) · German Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.5960/dzsm.2022.549 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationBerg, J., Undebakke, V., Rasch-Halvorsen, Ø., Aakerøy, L., Sandbakk, Ø. B., & Tjønna, A. E. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00365 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Primarily, data collection for the present study was conducted in October-December, which comprise the end of preparation period and early competition period for XC skiers (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
MethodSelf-citationBaumgart, J. K., Haugnes, P., Bardal, L. M., Østerås, S., Kocbach, J., & Sandbakk, Ø. B. (2019) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2019.00004 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“This is different than what has been found in able-bodied XC skiers where both cycle rate and length are used to increase or reduce speed between such intensities across all terrains (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEvolutions in the physiology of skiing, skating and running in the Olympics
Hausken, K. (2019) · The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness · doi:10.23736/s0022-4707.18.08977-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Kim, J. K., & Choi, Y. C. (2020) · Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.15586/jomh.v16i1.201 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Паршукова, О. И., Геннадьевна, В. Н., Потолицына, Н. Н., Lyudinina, A. Y., & Bojko, E. R. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11010039 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Most likely, this difference can be explained by different methodological approaches for determining the V’O2 max and higher anthropometric indicators of elite Swedish skiers (height 180 ± 2 cm, weight 74 ± 2 kg) [13] and Norwegian representatives of world-class winter sports [14,15].”
BackgroundAalberg, M., Roaas, T. V., Aune, M. A., Bjerke, Ø., & Aune, T. (2022) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports10020016 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Feuerbacher, J. F., Dragutinovic, B., Jacobs, M. W., & Schumann, M. (2023) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2022-0377 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cardiovascular Adaptations to Four Months Training in Middle-Aged Amateur Long-Distance Skiers
Grzebisz-Zatońska, N. (2020) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics10070442 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Heikura, I. A., Kettunen, O., Garthe, I., Holmlund, H., Sandbakk, S. B., Valtonen, M., & Ihalainen, J. K. (2021) · Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1007/s42978-020-00105-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Sæther, S. A., Iversen, M., Talsnes, R. K., et al. (2021) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports9100138 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“[9], a group of 24 Chinese runners, rowers, and kayakers were transferred to XC skiing, one of the most technically and physiologically demanding endurance sports, over a six-month training period using state of-the-art training methodology [13] and high-level coaches.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSeeberg, T. M., Kocbach, J., Danielsen, J., Noordhof, D. A., Skovereng, K., Meyer, F., & Sandbakk, Ø. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.741573 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“XC skiing is further complicated by continuous shifts between sub-techniques and the adaption of cycle rate (CR) and cycle length (CL) according to the topography of the track, during both training and competitions (Holmberg, 2015; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationJohansen, J.-M., Sunde, A., Helgerud, J., & Støren, Ø. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.829758 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Cross-country skiing is a demanding aerobic endurance sport (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
BackgroundThe influence of sub-technique and skiing velocity on air drag in skating style cross-country skiing
Elfmark, O., Docter, H., Sandbakk, Ø. B., et al. (2023) · Sports Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12283-023-00429-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Cross-country (XC) skiing, biathlon and Nordic combined are Olympic winter sports employing the skating technique, which includes several sub-techniques optimized for different speed-incline combinations [1].”
Self-citationYu, Y., Li, D., Lu, Y., & Mi, J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0295960 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
One-year periodization of training loads of Russian and Norwegian elite cross-country skiers
Борисович, М. Е., Сергеевич, К. А., Валерьевич, А. Н., Dikunets, M. A., & Shestakov, M. (2020) · Journal of Human Sport and Exercise · doi:10.14198/jhse.2021.163.18 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…adult elite Norwegian cross-country skiers’ (NorXC) training processes, and even authentic training plans have presented in a series of studies (Sandbakk, 2017; Sandbakk et al., 2011; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2014, 2017; Sandbakk and Tønnessen, 2012; Solli et al., 2017, 2019; Tønnessen et al., 2014).”
Background
- Authors
- Sandbakk, Ø., & Holmberg, H.-C.
- Corresponding author
- Sandbakk, Øyvind
- Venue
- International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
- Publisher
- Human Kinetics
- Published
- 2017-09
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1003-1011
- ISSN
- 1555-0265 (ISSN-L)
- 1555-0273
- OpenAlex
- W2578384382
- Cited by
- 196
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 17.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Winter Sports Injuries and Performance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- cross-country skiing, elite athletes, physiological capacity, training routines, endurance, skiing technique, race speed, training monitoring
- MeSH terms
- Biomechanical Phenomena, Competitive Behavior, Doping in Sports, Energy Metabolism, Humans, Motor Skills, Oxygen Consumption, Physical Endurance, Sex Factors, Skiing, Physical Conditioning, Human
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