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Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters
Open accessAbstract
Beneath the waves, oxygen disappears: As plastic waste pollutes the oceans and fish stocks decline, unseen below the surface another problem grows: deoxygenation. Breitburg et al. review the evidence for the downward trajectory of oxygen levels in increasing areas of the open ocean and coastal waters. Rising nutrient loads coupled with climate change—each resulting from human activities—are changing ocean biogeochemistry and increasing oxygen consumption. This results in destabilization of sediments and fundamental shifts in the availability of key nutrients. In the short term, some compensatory effects may result in improvements in local fisheries, such as in cases where stocks are squeezed between the surface and elevated oxygen minimum zones. In the longer term, these conditions are unsustainable and may result in ecosystem collapses, which ultimately will cause societal and economic harm. Science , this issue p. eaam7240
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“As climate change accelerates, an earlier onset and later termination of hypoxic conditions along with latitudinal expansions (Breitburg et al., 2018), may also make the co-occurrence of HABs and hypoxia more common.”
From Harmful algal blooms: A climate change co-stressor in marine and freshwater ecosystems (2020) · cites this paper as Breitburg et al., 2018
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“Despite the awareness of ocean deoxygenation as an emergent climate change stressor (Levin and Breitburg, 2015;Breitburg et al., 2018), the interactive effects between HABs and hypoxia are relatively unknown.”
From Harmful algal blooms: A climate change co-stressor in marine and freshwater ecosystems (2020) · cites this paper as Breitburg et al., 2018
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“Climate change likely contributes to these trends as the shallow bathymetries and complex topographies can lead to rapid warming (Scanes et al., 2020), and shifts in watershed processes (e.g.nutrient delivery) accelerate DO declines in many regions (Breitburg et al., 2018;Howarth et al., 2011).”
From Warming and hypoxia reduce the performance and survival of northern bay scallops (Argopecten irradians irradians) amid a fishery collapse (2023) · cites this paper as Breitburg et al., 2018
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“Large amounts of organic matter associated with algal blooms can stimulate microbial respiration that depletes dissolved oxygen and produces CO 2 , promoting hypoxia (Fig. 1; Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008;Gilbert et al., 2010;Breitburg et al., 2018) and acidification (Fig. 1; Cai et al., 2011;Waldbusser et al., 2011;Wallace et al., 2014;Baumann et al., 2015).”
From Harmful algal blooms: A climate change co-stressor in marine and freshwater ecosystems (2020) · cites this paper as Breitburg et al., 2018
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“Dissolved oxygen (DO) impairment and hypoxic conditions (oxygen concentrations < 2 mg L) are also increasingly common within coastal (Breitburg et al., 2018) and inland (Saari et al.”
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BackgroundHow vulnerable is the European seafood production to climate warming?
Blanchet, M., Primicerio, R., Smalås, A., Arias-Hansen, J., & Aschan, M. (2018) · Fisheries Research · doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2018.09.004 · Cited by 17
“Recent climate projections indicate that warming will affect economies relying on the production of seafood exploiting marine and freshwater ecosystems (Hollowed et al., 2013 and references therein, Barange et al., 2014; Breitburg et al., 2018).”
BackgroundA universal approach for drainage basins
Oliveira, E. A., Pires, R. S., Oliveira, R. S., Furtado, V., Herrmann, H. J., & Andrade, J. S. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-46165-0 · Cited by 17
“[11] Breitburg, D.”
BackgroundEpisodic nearshore-offshore exchanges of hypoxic waters along the north shore of Lake Erie
Valipour, R., León, L. F., Howell, E. T., Dove, A., & Rao, Y. R. (2021) · Journal of Great Lakes Research · doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2021.01.014 · Cited by 17
Climate Change, Multiple Stressors, and Responses of Marine Biota
Sampaio, E., & Rosa, R. (2019) · Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95885-9_90 · Cited by 18
Müller‐Karulis, B., McCrackin, M. L., Dessirier, B., Gustafsson, B. G., & Humborg, C. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.122478 · Cited by 16
Plata, G. M., Mastrogiacomo, J. R. A., Castellanos, M. L., Romero, J. P., Hincapié, V., Lizcano, H., Acero, J. D., Villegas-Torres, M. F., Gómez, J. M., Cruz, J. C., et al. (2025) · Processes · doi:10.3390/pr13041077 · Cited by 20
Global mapping of flux and microbial sources for oceanic N2O
Wang, S., Huang, J., Wu, Z., Li, S., Zhu, X., Liu, Y., & Ji, G. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58715-4 · Cited by 19
Sulfide oxidation in deep Baltic Sea sediments upon oxygenation and colonization by macrofauna
Bonaglia, S., Marzocchi, U., Ekeroth, N., Brüchert, V., Blomqvist, S., & Hall, P. (2019) · Marine Biology · doi:10.1007/s00227-019-3597-y · Cited by 17
Collapse of Biodiversity in the Aquatic Environment
Marques, L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-47527-7_11 · Cited by 21
Philanthrocapitalism and Global Health
Wilson, J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108692137.035 · Cited by 16
Martínez-Bautista, G., Peña, E., Martínez‐García, R., Camarillo‐Coop, S., Burggren, W. W., & Álvarez‐González, C. A. (2021) · Fishes · doi:10.3390/fishes6010005 · Cited by 16
“For example, changes in salinity and dissolved oxygen come together with water warming because of climate change and anthropogenic activities [49,50].”
BackgroundRabouille, C., Lansard, B., Owings, S. M., Rabalais, N. N., Bombled, B., Metzger, É., Richirt, J., Eitel, E. M., Boever, A., Beckler, J., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2021.604330 · Cited by 19
Self-citationClarke, T. M., Wabnitz, C., Frölicher, T., Reygondeau, G., Pauly, D., & Cheung, W. W. L. (2022) · Fish and Fisheries · doi:10.1111/faf.12694 · Cited by 14
“Furthermore, in the tropics, temperature and oxygen levels are closer to species' physiological tolerance limits, so even a small degree of warming could drive species to shift towards cooler, more oxygenated waters (Breitburg et al., 2018).”
What is the future of water quality trading?
Liu, H., & Brouwer, R. (2022) · Contemporary Economic Policy · doi:10.1111/coep.12583 · Cited by 16
Ma, X., Liu, A., Zhao, Q., Wang, B., Tian, D., Meng, Q., Zeng, D., Li, J., Huang, D., & Zhou, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2022.897063 · Cited by 16
Chen, S., Meng, Y., Lin, S. F., & Xi, J. (2022) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs14215611 · Cited by 17
“On the other hand, phytoplankton in the ocean contributes to roughly half of the fixed carbon on the planet by absorbing atmospheric CO2, significantly alleviating global warming [5,6].”
BackgroundCavole, L. M., Limburg, K. E., Gallo, N. D., Salvanes, A. G. V., Ramírez‐Valdez, A., Levin, L. A., Aburto‐Oropeza, O., Hertwig, A. T., Liu, M., & McKeegan, K. D. (2022) · Deep Sea Research Part I Oceanographic Research Papers · doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2022.103941 · Cited by 17
Self-citationDavis, C. V., Doherty, S. C., Fehrenbacher, J. S., & Wishner, K. F. (2023) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2023.1145756 · Cited by 17
“Marine deoxygenation is one consequence of ongoing global change and is likely to be felt most acutely in the expansion of already low oxygen environments in the coastal and open ocean (Keeling et al., 2009; Levin, 2018; Schmidtko et al., 2017; Breitburg et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelectivity of mass extinctions: Patterns, processes, and future directions
Payne, J. L., Aswad, J. A. A., Deutsch, C. A., Monarrez, P. M., Penn, J. L., & Singh, P. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.10 · Cited by 16
“Unabated anthropogenic emissions could drive the oceans toward widespread oxygen deficiency over the rest of the 21 st century and beyond (Figure 5H) (Breitburg et al., 2018).”
Specchiulli, A., Pastorino, P., Rinaldis, G. D., Scirocco, T., Anselmi, S., Cilenti, L., Ungaro, N., & Renzi, M. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164228 · Cited by 16
Ning, X., Han, B., Shi, Y., Qian, X., Zhang, K., & Yin, S. (2023) · Aquatic Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106619 · Cited by 16
Yang, S., Huang, T., Zhang, H., Guo, H., Hu, R., Lin, Z., Li, Y., & Cheng, Y. (2023) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2023.116830 · Cited by 16
Simulations of ocean deoxygenation in the historical era: insights from forced and coupled models
Takano, Y., Ilyina, T., Tjiputra, J. F., Eddebbar, Y. A., Berthet, S., Bopp, L., Buitenhuis, E. T., Butenschön, M., Christian, J. R., Dunne, J. P. P., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2023.1139917 · Cited by 23
“Recent studies suggest that ESMs may underestimate the observed interannual to decadal variability and long-term changes in the O 2 content and air-sea O 2 fl uxes (Long et al., 2016; Eddebbar et al., 2017; Schmidtko et al., 2017; Oschlies et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialMancini, A. M., Lozar, F., Gennari, R., Capozzi, R., Morigi, C., & Negri, A. (2023) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104664 · Cited by 18
“6B), and their significant impact on ecosystem functioning (Breitburg et al., 2018), it is necessary to examine the Messinian ORS deposited in Sorbas Basin.”
Lin, H. A. O., Sanada, A., Chi, B., Xiong, B., MARUYA, Y., & Shinichiro, Y. A. N. O. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172471 · Cited by 16
Estimates of the global ocean surface dissolved oxygen and macronutrients from satellite data
Sundararaman, H. K. K., & Shanmugam, P. (2024) · Remote Sensing of Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rse.2024.114243 · Cited by 22
Evolution of Key Oxygen-Sensing Genes Is Associated with Hypoxia Tolerance in Fishes
Babin, C. H., Leiva, F. P., Verberk, W. C. E. P., & Rees, B. B. (2024) · Genome Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/gbe/evae183 · Cited by 16
“…habitats (Diaz and Breitburg 2009; Mandic and Regan 2018; Woods et al. 2022), the last several decades have seen a dramatic increase in the severity, duration, and geographic scope of aquatic hypoxia due to human activities (Breitburg et al. 2018; Sampaio et al. 2021; Xenopoulos et al. 2021).”
BackgroundCruz-Moreno, D. G., Hernández-Aguirre, L. E., Peregrino-Uriarte, A. B., Leyva‐Carrillo, L., Gómez‐Jiménez, S., Contreras‐Vergara, C. A., Hernández‐López, J., & Yepiz-Plascencia, G. M. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2024.152052 · Cited by 16
Vertical distribution of mesopelagic fishes deepens during marine heatwave in the California Current
Iglesias, I. S., Fiechter, J., Santora, J. A., & Field, J. C. (2024) · ICES Journal of Marine Science · doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsae129 · Cited by 16
Boot, A., Steenbeek, J. G., Marta Coll, M., von der Heydt, A. S., & Dijkstra, H. A. (2025) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2024ef004741 · Cited by 16
“Another consequence of climate change is the expansion of hypoxic regions, especially those found along productive regions (Breitburg et al., 2018; Diaz & Rosenberg, 2008), which already has led to mass mortalities (Doney et al., 2012; Sampaio et al., 2021).”
Wang, H., Hu, X., Rabalais, N. N., & Brandes, J. A. (2018) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2018gl078571 · Cited by 16
“It is known that eutrophication results in excess production of organic carbon (OC) at surface as well as enhanced water column and benthic respiration, and ocean warming decreases oxygen solubility (Breitburg et al., 2018; Falkowski et al., 2011; Gilbert et al., 2010; Keeling et al., 2010; Rabalais et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCabral, A., & Fonseca, A. (2019) · Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science · doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2019.05.010 · Cited by 17
Circumventing kinetics in biogeochemical modeling
Louca, S., Scranton, M. I., Taylor, G. T., Astor, Y., Crowe, S. A., & Doebeli, M. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1819883116 · Cited by 16
“For example, SMF models may help predict transitions in the biogeochemistry of expanding ocean oxygen minimum zones (85, 86), especially since the future microbial community composition of these systems (and thus their reaction kinetics) is unknown.”
BackgroundMonteiro, D. A., Taylor, E. W., McKenzie, D. J., Rantin, F. T., & Kalinin, A. L. (2020) · Ecotoxicology · doi:10.1007/s10646-020-02186-4 · Cited by 16
Andrén, E., van Wirdum, F., Ivarsson, L. N., Lönn, M., Moros, M., & Andrén, T. (2020) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109878 · Cited by 15
van Helmond, N. A. G. M., Lougheed, B. C., Vollebregt, A., Peterse, F., Fontorbe, G., Conley, D. J., & Slomp, C. P. (2020) · Limnology and Oceanography · doi:10.1002/lno.11575 · Cited by 15
“Oceanic oxygen depletion is attributed to two main causes, both linked to human activity: (1) enhanced nutrient input and (2) climatic warming (Breitburg et al. 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSroczyńska, K., Conde, A., Chaínho, P., & Adão, H. (2021) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107384 · Cited by 16
“Oxygen levels are diminishing worldwide both in open ocean and coastal areas (Breitburg et al., 2018) having direct negative impacts on all different aspects of aquatic life (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008).”
BackgroundVariability of Dissolved Oxygen in the Bottom Layer of the Southern Senegalese Shelf
Wahab, T. A., Machu, É., Échevin, V., Capet, X., Piétri, A., Correa, K., Sall, S. M., & Lazar, A. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans · doi:10.1029/2020jc016854 · Cited by 20
Metadata
- Authors
- Breitburg, D., Levin, L. A., Oschlies, A., Grégoire, M., Chavez, F. P., Conley, D. J., Garçon, V., Gilbert, D., Gutiérrez, D., Isensee, K., Jacinto, G. S., Limburg, K. E., Montes, I., Naqvi, S. W. A., Pitcher, G. C., Rabalais, N. N., Roman, M. R., Rose, K. A., Seibel, B. A., Telszewski, M., Yasuhara, M., & Zhang, J.
- Affiliations
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (US)
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography (US)
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (DE)
- University of Liège (BE)
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA.
- Lund University (SE)
- CNRS/Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales, 31401 Toulouse, CEDEX 9, France.
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada (CA)
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia (PE)
- Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (FR)
- University of the Philippines Diliman (PH)
- SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry (US)
- Instituto Geofísico del Perú, Lima, Perú.
- Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KW)
- University of Cape Town (ZA)
- Louisiana State University (US)
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science (US)
- University of South Florida St. Petersburg (US)
- Instytut Oceanologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk (PL)
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Breitburg, Denise
- ORCID
- Breitburg, Denise
- Levin, Lisa A.
- Oschlies, Andreas
- Grégoire, Marilaure
- Chavez, Francisco P.
- Conley, Daniel J.
- Gilbert, Denis
- Gutiérrez, Dimitri
- Isensee, Kirsten
- Jacinto, Gil S.
- Limburg, Karin E.
- Montes, Ivonne
- Naqvi, S. W. A.
- Pitcher, Grant C.
- Rabalais, Nancy N.
- Roman, Michael R.
- Rose, Kenneth A.
- Seibel, Brad A.
- Telszewski, Maciej
- Yasuhara, Moriaki
- Zhang, Jing
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2018-01-05
- Volume
- 359
- Issue
- 6371
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2781567654
- Cited by
- 3,253
- References
- 129
- Citations by year
- 2026: 402 · 2025: 446 · 2024: 528 · 2023: 449 · 2022: 383 · 2021: 450 · 2020: 281 · 2019: 212 · 2018: 96
- FWCI
- 21.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- public-domain
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (GEOMAR) (acceptedVersion)
- NOAA Institutional Repository (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Civil War Book Review (submittedVersion)
- Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) (submittedVersion)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Liège) (submittedVersion)
- Smithsonian Digital Repository (Smithsonian Institution) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- DFG (SFB754)
- NOAA-CSCOR (NA10NOS4780138)
- Maryland Sea Grant (SA75281450-P)
- NSF-EAR (1324095)
- FNRS and the BENTHOX program (T.1009.15)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Marine Plankton and Biogeochemistry
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Marine Biology and Ecology Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Marine and fisheries research
- Keywords
- ocean deoxygenation, coastal waters, microbial respiration, oxygen solubility, nutrient loading, global warming, marine fisheries, estuarine ecosystems
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Biological, Animals, Conservation of Natural Resources, Environmental Monitoring, Fisheries, Oceans and Seas, Oxygen, Seawater, Global Warming, Aquatic Organisms
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